1. INTRODUCTION
Climate change has increasingly remained a
contemporary issue that has prominently featured on the development agendas of
my countries in the world (OECD, 2014). This phenomenon occurs when the average
long term weather pattern of a region are altered for an extended period,
typically a decade or longer. Examples of climate change include shifts in wind
patterns, the average temperature or the amount of precipitation. These changes
can affect one region, many regions or the whole planet (Ian, 2010). Climate
fluctuations are of three main kinds according to Ekpoh
(2002), namely, climate noise, climate variability and climate change.
Climate change is
caused by changes in the total amount of energy that is kept within the earth’s
atmosphere. The change in energy is then spread out around the globe mainly by
ocean current as well as wind and weather pattern to affect the climate of
different region (Ian 2010). Most importantly climate change has generally been
known to affect agriculture where women form the back bone. Women play a significant role in agriculture,
in the world making over 70% of the agriculture workers, 80% of food produce and
more than 2/3 of the workforce in agricultural production FAO (1985).
Climate change
affects women’s agricultural productivity through change in average
temperature, change in rainfall, extreme climate, changes in pest and diseases,
changes in atmospheric carbon dioxide and ground level ozone concentration and
changes in sea level. Since women are the most vulnerable group, in the society
a slight change in climate will lead to a greater effect on their productivity
thus affecting livelihood for the household. For example in Cameroon, climate
change has led to the extinction of “Ibo Coco” which has affected the women’s
household negatively. This confirms the declaration of the World Summit on food
(November 2009) which indicated that climate change poses additional risks to
food security and the agricultural sector.
While climate change
is a global phenomenon, its impacts are felt locally. According to the
international panel on climate change (IPCC), developing countries are expected
to be hit the hardest by climate change. This is not because agriculture
represents the primary source of income and livelihood for 75% of the world’s
poor but because their national, local, and household capacity to cope with
climate change impact is limited (IFAD 2002, World Bank 2008). Although poor
smallholders are hardest hit by climate change, they are the group list
responsible for it. When a family livelihood strategy is altered by climate
change, all its members are affected.
Apparently men and
women also contribute and are affected differently by climate change.
Consequently they have different ways of coping with it, adapting to it, and
mitigating its impacts (Denton,2002). Disparities in
the effects of climate change on women and men exist because of the social
position of women in the family and the community and because climate change
affects the factors most essential to women’s means of subsistence: food, water
and energy supply. Climate change can alter the allocation of tasks and time in
different ways for men and women. For example, water stress, decreasing the
time available to women for food production and preparation as well as
participating in income generating activities, will likely affect household
food security and nutritional wellbeing. (AfBD,
2009a). This is enough evidence to suggest that women farmers have a
higher exposure to climate risks compared to men.
However in Cameroon
climate change has also spurred agricultural innovation. That is, when women
experience high postharvest losses because of heavy rainfall, women harness
their indigenous knowledge by turning crops into processed foods that last
longer and have a better market value (Fordham et al. 2001). This notwithstanding,
the role of women in these activities economically has remain obscured for long
because women seldom played any major roles in political activities or decision
making processes.
According
to Gemma (2011) there is
currently little government awareness around climate change in Cameroon although
national focus on environmental and conservation issues has increased since the
early 1990s. Government officials engaging in climate change are largely
restricted to a climate change unit within MINEP and a selected number of
officials in the Ministry of Forestry and Fauna (MINFOF) who are engaged in
climate change issues through the ongoing REDD process. Awareness is
predominantly focused around REDD and REDD+ initiatives although other
activities include the development of a NAPA, preliminary work towards around
the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), and the development of a small number of
climate change components within existing and planned sector level projects,
for example in a forthcoming agriculture project.
The
country’s national development strategy, the Vision 2035, makes only a brief
refer to climate change and fails to articulate the development challenges that
Cameroon is facing with regards to climate change or how these should be
addressed. The medium-term Growth and Employment Strategy (GESP) subsequently
mentions climate change only once. It is therefore difficult to identify how
government plans to address climate change mitigation and adaptation needs as
part of the country’s wider development process (ibid, 2011).
Food productivity and
nutritional security remain at risk due to climate change. This obviously
affects the already vulnerable women and children more than other groups. The
linkages between health, nutrition, agriculture, education and climate change
need to be proactively mainstreamed into policies and programmes
to improve women’s quality of life and also facilitate the progress toward
achieving sustainable development.
2.
Research Problem
According to the
international panel on climate change (IPCC), Africa is likely to be the
continent most vulnerable to climate change. Among the risks the continent
faces are reduction in food security and agricultural productivity,
particularly regarding subsistence agriculture, increase water stress and, as a
result of these and the potential for increased exposure to disease and other
health risks, increased risks to human health (Parry et al 2007).
African
women are an essential stakeholder in the agricultural sector. They tend to be
ultimately responsible for household welfare and food security mainly by
depending on agriculture. Consequently, variations or dynamics in climate shocks
take a heavy toll on them. Since men and women are affected differently by climate
change, they consequently have different ways of coping with it, adapting to
it, and mitigating its impacts (Denton, 2002). Disparities in the effects of
climate change on women and men exist because of the social statuses of women
in the family and the community and the different crops they cultivate. While
men are specialized in cash crop for income, women are into in food crop for
subsistence. A change in climatic condition tends to affect these women’s
agricultural productivity which poses a threat to the women agricultural
production, household income and their family life.
With the
lukewarm attitude of the government towards climate change, African women have
decided to stand on the frontlines of the impact of climate change.
Unfortunately they are poorly equipped, slow to change or even make the
necessary adaptation strategies sustainable. Agricultural change does not
involve a simple linear relationship between changes in a farmer’s decision
making environment and farm-level change. It is against this background that
this study examines to answer the following questions:
3.
Research questions
·
What are the dynamics and manifestations of
climate change in Muyuka
·
What are the effects of climatic change on
women’s agricultural productivity in Muyuka?
·
What are the challenges faced and coping
strategies to climate change in Muyuka?
4.
Literature Review
4.1
Gender Dynamics and Mitigating Mechanisms of Climate Change
According
to UNDP (2011) the degree to which people are affected by climate change
impacts is partly a function of their social status, gender, power and access
to and control over resources. Despite the international community’s increasing
acknowledgement of the differential experiences and skills women and men bring
to development and environmental
sustainability efforts, there is substantive evidence that, the
adverse effects of climate on human society, and one’s ability to mitigate and
adapt to them, are significantly mediated by their gender (Surekha,
2010). However, till date women experience
unequal access to resources and decision-making processes.
This notwithstanding, UNDP reveals that agriculture constitutes
79 percent of economic activity in Sub Saharan women involve in. In Cameroon,
the agricultural sector contributes about 35% of the country
’s GDP, contributes to foreign exchange, job creation, provides raw
materials for industry as well as poverty reduction (Abia
and Endeley, 2014).
However women in developing countries are particularly
vulnerable to climate change because they are highly dependent on local natural
resources for their livelihood (UN, 2009). Besides they are ascribed the gender
role of caring for the family (Kabeer, 1994) which
remain a practical responsibility. However women still have lesser economic,
political and legal influence as far as coping with effects of the changing
climate is concerned, with limited mobility in rural areas that affect the
identification of gender-sensitive strategies that respond to climate change
crisis.
A number of factors account for the discrepancy between
women’s and men’s differentiated exposure and vulnerability to climate change
risks. Firstly, gender-based differences in time use, access to assets and
credit and
assets (Women often have
limited or no control over family finances) and treatment by markets and formal institutions (including
the legal and regulatory framework) constrain women’s opportunities. As a
result, there is a global gender gap in earnings and productivity women make
between 30 and 80 percent of what men earn annually. A World Bank survey in 141
countries showed that 103 countries continue to impose legal differences on the
basis of gender that may hinder women’s economic opportunities (UNDP,
2011). Gbetibouo (2009)
purports that the level of education attained by an individual goes a long way
in shaping his personality, altitude to life and adaptation of improved or
adverse condition as the case may be. Consequently the low educational level of
many women may also account for their inability to perceive, interpret and
respond to the impact.
Moreover, a lack of sex disaggregated data in all sectors
(e.g. livelihoods, disasters’ preparedness, protection
of environment, health and well-being) often leads to an underestimation of
women’s roles and contributions. This situation can then result in gender-blind
climate change policy and programming, which does not take into account the
gender differentiated roles of both women and men (i.e. their distinct needs,
constraints and priorities). As such, such policies and programming can have
the unintended effect of actually increasing gender-based vulnerability.
Lastly, compared to men, women are dependent and face huge
challenges in accessing all levels of policy and decision-making processes. In many
communities, women are underrepresented in community politics, and thus have
little influence over community strategies for adapting and over policies that
support women’s right and priorities. This
renders them less able to influence policies, programmes
and decisions that impact their lives(Care
international Adaptation, Gender and Women’s Empowerment, 2010).
In Ethiopia, women
farmers identify shortage of land as the single biggest constraint to adapting
to climate change, followed closely by lack of information and credit, labour, inputs and water, as well as poor soils. South
Africa women farmers identify lack of access to credit as the major obstacle to
adapting, followed by lack of water, information, and market access, and
insecure property rights. (IFPRI, 2008).
Since agriculture is
the principal source of income into the rural households and women in
particular, adaptation of agricultural sector is imperative to enhance
resilience of the agricultural sector: productivity, livelihood of the poor and
ensure food security (Bryan et al, 2011). Consequently, though men and women in
many developing countries experience difference in terms of vulnerability and
adaptive capacity to climate change (Denton, 2002) by virtue of their gender
subsequent specialization in the cultivation of various crops (cash crop for
men and food crop for women respectively), they still strategize to cope with
climate change.
Maddison (2006)
posit that farmers learn about the best agricultural adaptation options through
three ways. These include: learning by
doing, learning by copying and learning from instructions. In this light, Tuned
(2011), avers that planting of trees constitute a major mitigating mechanism.
He explains that this activity helps to compensate for trees felled and
construct water reservoir to collect rain water to spray cocoa farms.
Other farmers
irrespective of gender employ the use of manure and compost as fertilizers to
maintain soil fertility. This practice according to Muller (2011) increases
soil organic carbon. Some female farmers cope with climate change using the
adaptive measures proposed by extension workers in terms of information on
agricultural technologies (Ifanyi -Obi et al.
2012).Apart from the above other women simply changed planting date and plant
late when they are sure there is enough water in the soil for plant to germinate.
Women play a pivotal role in agriculture and in other
productive and reproductive activities at the household and community levels.
This puts them in a position to contribute to livelihood strategies adapted to
changing environmental realities. Their extensive knowledge and expertise that
can widely be used in climate change mitigation, and adaptation strategies is
absolutely important and by so doing, making them effective actors and agents
of change.
The study was
informed by the African Strategy for Climate change 2014. The Vision of the
African strategy is to provide the AU as a whole, Member States and other
stakeholders with a reliable source of strategic guidance to enable them
effectively address climate change challenges. The strategy also proposes to
carry out other interventions to address some specific priority areas including
adaptation and risk management. This is with the view of improving the
livelihoods of the African people and environment they live in.
Africa’s priorities
are to implement climate change programmes in such a
way as to achieve sustainable development and alleviate poverty with the
emphasis on the most vulnerable groups, especially women and children (AMCEN,2011).
The main objective of
this strategy is to enable the continent achieve “climate-smart” socioeconomic
development. In preparing a climate change strategy for Africa, it is important
to tnote that adaptation is an overriding priority
for the continent, and that there is an urgent need for the implementation of
adaptation measures and actions, including through the provision of
substantial new and additional public financial resources, environmentally
sound technologies
and capacity building in a predictable and prompt manner. Key considerations on
adaptation
include the focus of adaptation must shift from vulnerability assessment to the
implementation of adaptation programmes (AMCEN,2014).
5. Materials and Method
The study was carried out in Muyuka, situated at the foot of mount Cameroon. The reason
for selecting Muyuka is because of its
rich volcanic soil which attracts both men and women from all parts of the
country and especially women from the communities around like Ekona, Mautu, Meanja,
Owe, Yoke, Malende, Bafia, Ikata, and Muyenge who cultivate crops like
cocoyam, cassava, yam, plantain, water melon, egusi,
groundnut, cocoa, and palms and sometime in the mix farming system. The majority
of people in these areas are mostly involved in agriculture and petit trading
though a few of them are formal sector workers.
100 women farmers in three quarters of Muyuka were selected using a quota and random sampling
methods. This includes (Mokanga (30), Bitter leaf
quarter (30), Stranger quarter (40).The criteria for selection included the
following:
·
The respondent must be a female aged between 30 and 55.
·
The respondent must have farmed for at least 10years.
·
The respondent must be present at the moment of the selection.
The study adopted a descriptive research
design and the main instruments for data collection were secondary and primary:
questionnaires (addressed to women farmers), Interview guide addressed to
officials involved in environmental development and focus group discussion for
women farmers to elicit and confirm valid responses, along side
journals, books and official reports. These primary instruments were pre-tested
to ensure reliability and validity.Data was analyzed quantitatively with
the use of Statistical Package of Social Science and qualitatively using the
thematic content analysis. Data is presented using frequency distribution,
tables and statistical description.
6. Results
and Discussion
The Profile of Women Farmers
The
majority of women (55%) were in the age range of 40-49 years and most of them
(46%) were married. A significant proportion of respondents (64%) had attained
primary or basic education and 98% had children of ages between 1 and 16 with
the mode of household size being 1-5.Only 2% of respondents rented farm lands
on which they work and 97% owned between 1-5 farm.
Moreover women farmers cultivated food crops for three reasons: for subsistence
and commercial (61%), commercial (11%) and subsistence (28%). A substantial
number (95%) of the women have been farming independently for over 10years
which gives them more experience in farm work. These statistics could be
likened to Defang et al (2014) who also found that farming is the main activity
practiced in Muyuka which contribute to sustenance of
families. Apparently, women cultivate food crops (56%), cash crops (10%), food
and cash crops (34%) using basically crude tools such as machetes and hoes.
Other farms tools include; diggers, trucks, wheel barrows and sprayers
Dynamics and Manifestations of Climate Change
All women
were aware of climate change and had experienced this phenomenon within the
last 10years. In this regard climate change was defined variously: “A change in
rainfall and excessive heat”, “Too much sun and less rainfall which dries up
crops”, “Changes in precipitation patterns”, “Changes in season that affects
production, farming and harvest of crops”, “A period that changes the planting
calendar of the year” and “…fluctuation in season which causes a problem with
crop growth” Furthermore some 92% of the respondents additionally had knowledge
of the causes of climate change as seen on table 1 below:
Table 1:
Distribution of respondents based on causes of climate change
|
Causes
of climate change
|
frequency
|
|
Too much heat
|
93
|
|
Too much rain
|
89
|
|
Too much sun
|
79
|
|
Bush burning
|
66
|
|
Burning of waste that intoxicates the soil
|
54
|
|
Deforestation
|
45
|
|
Pollution
|
31
|
|
Drought and flood
|
11
|
|
Increase in gases like carbon dioxide
|
9
|
Source: Field work, 2018
The
manifestations of climate change were described differently by women farmers.
According to these women climate change manifests in the form of increased
temperatures and changes in precipitation patterns, increase greenhouse gas
emission, change in land use, more drought and heat waves and increase in sea
level. Furthermore while some of these women farmers were equally able to identify duration
period of the manifestations of climate change which varied between: 6-10
months (52%) and 1-5months (39%) others did not have an idea of the duration
period.
Effects of climatic change on women’s
agricultural productivity
The
effects on climate change were generally negative. Crops most affected were
cassava, cocoa, groundnut, cocoyam and maize. Others included: egusi, palm nuts, plantains, yams, vegetables and bananas.
There were notably great discrepancies after climate change in terms of in
quantity and quality of produce, crop size and colour,
income, soil texture and increased occurrence of plant diseases and pests.
Web (2011) avers that gender and climate
change are linked that is why women face so many challenges because climate
change is a threat to development gains. Furthermore different roles of men and
women give them knowledge, priority and concerns in relation to climate change.
Adaptation interventions are often based on the belief that women’s role in the
home makes them critical agents of change and thus a focus for adaptation
intervention but many women lack power over decision making and resources
within the home even in female headed households. These barriers are not
usually addressed by climate change and adaptation programs which tend to
entrench gender inequality and increase women’s workload. This is driving
households and communities to change their lifestyles and roles which have
different changes on gender.
Challenges
to Adaptation strategies to climate change
Table 5:
Distribution of respondents based on Challenges to climate change
|
Challenges
to Adaptation strategies
|
Frequency
|
|
limited knowledge on adaptation methods
|
83
|
|
Limited capital to purchase chemicals
|
70
|
|
Increased workload on women
|
92
|
|
Negative effect on health
|
46
|
|
Limited access to farm equipment
|
29
|
|
Inaccessibility to loans to purchase
equipment
|
37
|
|
Difficulties in transporting equipment to
the farm
|
44
|
Source: Field work, 2018
Women in Muyuka
like others elsewhere struggle to resist climate change by employing adaptation
mechanisms. However they experience a host of challenges which limits the
adaptation process. A substantial percentage (83%) lack adequate knowledge on
appropriate adaptation methods to employ against climate change. This was
virtually because of their low educational background. This
tallies with Gbetibouo (2009) who posit that
the low educational level of many women may also account for their inability to
perceive, interpret and respond to the impact. Women farmer (70%) had limited
income to cover the constant purchase of chemicals and equipment. This is
unlike the situation in Ethiopia where women’s biggest constraint to adapting
to climate change was shortage of land (IFPRI, 2008). More importantly upto 92% of women farmers experienced an increase in
workload which affected other gender roles. A 36year old woman said:
…coping with climate change has been very
complicated and difficult. I no longer have enough time to care for my children
because I spent time following up for my cassava. It is either I am looking for
where to buy fertilizer at a low cost or applying it to crops or, pruning the
crop or convincing a neighbour to lend me his sprayer or…that is it… too much work…
The Cameroon government is not unaware of the
dangers of climate change and its effect on women. However, policies related to
food security and climate change have often sidelined women and prioritized the
interests of male farmers involved especially in large scale cash crop
production. Nonetheless Non-Governmental Organizations have increasingly played
an important role in educating women on climate change and related issues but
without necessary follow-ups and specific interest in women.
CONCLUSION
Climate change is a threat to the livelihood
of farmers in general and women in particular because of the challenges they
face. Generally women experienced a decrease in crop yields, low output hence
low income which affects household consumption, standards of living, access to
information, bank loans. Women in Muyuka sub division
on their part farmed mainly for subsistence and commercial purposes. However
changes in climate took a heavy toll on their crops (cocoa, plantains, cocoyam,
yams, egusi, cassava, groundnuts maize and palm nuts)
which resulted to hunger, poverty, high rate of school dropout, low living
standards. The climate event which mostly affected them was too much sun and
increased temperatures which caused crops to dry up before maturity, thereby
increasing workload for women as they had to water crops consistently. Since
agriculture is their main source of food and income, adaptation of the
agricultural sector is therefore compulsory for every woman. This is
particularly to mitigate vulnerability of these communities and ensure food
security thereby fostering the African Strategy on Climate Change. But the
sustainability period could however not be determined which thus expose them to
new risks. Consequently integrating climate change measures into national
policies and particularly promoting mechanisms for increasing capacity for
effective planning and management of climate change issues, including focusing
on women will not only transform the situation but also contribute to the
achievement of Sustainable Development Goal 13: Take urgent action to combat
climate change and its impacts.
RECOMMENDATIONS
·
Sensitize the community on gender, climate
change and its effects on women and men in the community.
· The need to empower women farmers by
investing in women farmers’ education and enhance farmers’ wellbeing. This will
achieve the objective of the African Strategy for Climate change 2014 if
implemented. That is to address some specific priority areas including
adaptation and risk management.
· Other stakeholders like non-governmental
organizations involved in agriculture should work hand in glove with the
Ministry of agriculture to encourage the implementation of the African Strategy
for Climate change 2014
· The Ministry of Agriculture should integrate
rural communities including women in decision making platforms on climate
change.
· The Ministry of Agriculture should improve
institutional set up for climate change adaptation and help review and
reinforce policies on food crops to suit women farmers and provide aid to
farmers like scholarships, jobs, allowances, equipment, training to enable them
acquire knowledge, techniques and capacity on how to handle challenges of
climate change.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I am very grateful to Eyongeta
N Telma, my research assistant who showed interest in
the study and contributed significantly at all stages of the research.
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