INTRODUCTION
Lack of
all year round good quality feed remains a critical problem in the
sustaining high productivity from ruminant, most especially the small ruminant
animals in the derived savanna ecological zone (Akinlade
et al 2002) of Nigeria. The ecological zone has been known for a cyclic
change in the availability and nutritional status of forages
Thus the search for
sustainable means of ameliorating these feed crises has been continuous. West
African Dwarf sheep, predominant in this region is an early maturing, prolific
and non-seasonal breeder, with an average of 80% multiple birth and are highly
resistant to trypanosomosis (Akusu
and Ajala, 2000).
Research findings on
a number of multipurpose plants (Smith et
al, 1995) are well documented. Roggero et al, (1996) however suggested that
sustainability of multipurpose plants depends on making use of diverse local
biological resources. This concept, which has also been advocated by some other
researchers (Osagie,1998; Okoli et al, 2001), calls for wider use of
the diversity of fodder tree species as providers of animal forage. Piliostigma thonningii is
a leguminous browse plant belonging to the family Caesalpinicea found in the sub-humid region of Africa, growing in open woodland
and savanna regions (Djuma, 2003).Its common name in
English is camel’s foot. It has feathery green leaves up to 15-17cm; the fodder
is rich in crude protein, minerals and vitamins (Tesemna
et al, 1993) and can produce a forage
yield of 1.5tonnes/annum, thus making it a reliable source of dry season
protein supplement for ruminant animals. The seeds when grinded have been fed
to cattle during winter (Djuma, 2003). It is widely
grown, well adapted and enjoys even distribution in African and Asia (Schuttes and Hoffman, 1973) and other tropical and
subtropical ecological zones of the world.
Most tropical browse species contain substantial amount of ant nutrient
(Makkar, et al,
1993). Generally, drying or wilting have been used to preserve leaves of browse
species for future use and reduce some of the inherent secondary metabolite
present in these leaves, and have also been reported to have significant
effects on chemical composition (Eroarome, 2002) as
well as voluntary dry matter intake (ILCA,1990).This study therefore
investigated the effects of wilting and drying of P. thonningii
leaves on feed intake by West African dwarf sheep as well as the
nutrient composition of the herbage.
MATERIALS
AND METHODS
2.1
Site
The research was carried out at the Small
ruminant unit of Teaching and Research Farm, Ladoke Akintola University of Technology Ogbomoso,
Nigeria. Ogbomoso is located on longitude 4o45oE
and latitude 8o260N of Nigeria. It has an annual rainfall
of 1247mm and a temperature of 270C (Chernowet al., 1993).
2.2
Housing and management of experimental animals
The housing consisted of open sides that
allowed cross- ventilation, concrete floor laced with wood shaving and metallic
roofing sheet. Twenty WAD sheep with average pre-trial body weight of 13.00 ±
1.3 procured from the local markets in Ogbomoso and
its environment was used for the growth study. Twenty (20) Matured WAD sheep
were used for the acceptability study.
On arrival, the sheep were given a prophylactic treatment against ecto and endo parasites with ‘Ivomec’ applied subcutaneously at the rate of 1ml/10kg body
weight.
2.3.
Experimental Forage procurement
The leaves of P. thonningii used for the study were
harvested from over 90 stands of Piliostigma tree
growing within and around the University farm. The plants were mature and were
about 10 years old and were observed to be at before flowering stage at the
time of harvest. P.maximum was harvested at the pre flowering
stage from an established paddocks in the University’s Teaching and Research
Farm.
2.4 Voluntary
intake of Piliostigma thonningii
by WAD sheep.
Voluntary
feed intake of P. thonningii as a sole diet by
West Africa dwarf sheep was assessed. Twenty (20) Animals were kept in
individual cubicles that were made of planks, concrete floor laced with wood
shavings. The study lasted for a period of 21 days. Forage was offered at 3%
body weight of individual animals on dry matter basis during this period to
establish voluntary feed intake by subtracting the feed refusal from the amount
originally offered the previous day. The animals were made to undergo an
adaptation period of two weeks, followed by a data collection period of 7days,
fresh and clean water was made permanently available to the animals throughout
the duration of the trial.
2.5 Growth performance of WAD sheep on fresh, dried and
wilted Piliostigma thonningii
PT mixed with Panicum maximum PM
The trial lasted for 60 days, with an initial
adjustment period of 14 days. The animals were weighed at the commencement of
the study and subsequently weekly. The animals were balanced for weight and sex
and subsequently were divided into four groups of five animals each and were
randomly assigned to experimental treatments. The animals were housed in
individual pens. There were four
experimental diets.
Diet 1 Animal fed with sole P. maximum (PM) forage at 100% offered
fresh.
Diet 2 consisted 70% P. maximum (PM) + 30% fresh Piliostigma thonningii.
Diet 3 was 70% P. maximum (PM) + 30% wilted Piliostigma thonningii
Diet 4 was 70% P. maximum (PM) + 30% dried Piliostigma thonningii
Feeds were offered in separate feeders at
0.9:00h every day. The proportion of each of the forages in the mixed diet was
calculated as a percentage of the total dry matter allowance of 3% body weight
of individual animals. Mineral salt block and fresh water was provided at all
times. The forage PM was chopped manually into about 5cm lengths and was
offered in separate troughs with whole leaves of PT according to each
treatment. The daily feed intake was calculated as the differences between the
quantity of feed offered and the refusal in the following day for each of the
forage. Samples of the forage fed were collected; oven dried at a temperature
of 600C to a constant weight for dry matter determinations. Samples
were thereafter ground and made to pass through 1.00mm sieve and kept at 40C
until when they were required for laboratory analysis.
2.6. Nutrient Digestibility trial
This was carried out immediately after the
completion of growth trial. Animals were
transferred to individual metabolic cages that had facilities for separate collection
of faeces and urine, and allowed to undergo an
adjustment period of 7days. This was followed by a collection period of 5days
during which feed intake and faecal output were
monitored. The experimental diets were
offered at 3% of body weight as in the growth trial. Fresh and clean water was
made permanently available to the animals throughout the duration of the trial.
10% of daily faecal output by each animal was taken,
dried to constant moisture level and stored at 40C until needed for
analysis.
2.7. Chemical analysis
Sub-samples
of forages and faeces were bulked, re-dried and
analyzed for proximate contents using the standard methods of (AOAC, 1990). Neutral detergent fibre (NDF), acid detergent fibre
(ADF) and acid detergent lignin (ADL) were determined according to Van Soest et al. (1991).
2.8. Mineral Analysis
The mineral elements were analyzed according to the
method of Walinga et al. (1989).
The elements in the sample were brought into solution by wet digestion
technique using a mixture of concentrated Nitric, Chloric and Sulphuric acids in the ratio 9:2:1 respectively. Fe, Zn, Ca and Mg were determined by Atomic Absorption Spectrometer
while K was determined using atomic emission spectrometer and Phosphorus was
determined using Spectrophotometer.
2.9. Anti-Nutritional Factor
Oxalic acid was estimated quantitatively by redox
titration with standard potassium permanganate according to the procedure of
Day and Underwood (1986). Saponin was determined using
the method similar to that of Hudson and El-Difrawl(1981),phytic acid determined in accordance with the procedure of Ruales and Nair (1993).
Tannic acid was determined in accordance with the procedure of AOAC
(1990).
2.10. Statistical Analysis
The data were
analyzed using a completely randomized design with animals as replicates using
General Linear Model (GLM) procedures of SAS, (1988). Means were separated
assuming a probability level of 0.05.
3. RESULTS
The
chemical composition of the Panicum maximum
and different forms of Piliostigma thonningii leaves are presented in Table 1. The values
obtained from chemical composition showed significant (P< 0.05) differences
among experimental diet. High CP% content (11%) was observed for Panicum maximum compared to different forms
of Piliostigma thonningii
leaves (fresh; 10.79%., Wilted ;10.26% and dried ;10.72%)., Dried Piliostigma thonningii
leaves contained more (P<0.05) NDF (59.34%), ADF (57.26%), ADL
(43.60%) and energy (2.60cal/g) than Panicum
maximum and fresh and wilted Piliostigma
thonningii leaves.
Table 2 shows the mineral composition of the
experimental diet. There were significant (P< 0.05) differences among
different forms of Piliostigma thonningii leaves along with Panicum
maximum and mineral content of the experimental diet. The mineral content
(%) of diet ranged for Ca (0.30-0.62%), P
(0.41-0.77%), K (0.30 - 0.62%), Mg (0.18 – 1.18%), Cu (3.04 - 4.13mg/kg), Fe
(30.00 - 60.20 mg/kg) and Zn (38.70 - 60.57 mg/kg).
The anti-nutrient contents of different forms
of Piliostigma thonningii leaves as experimental diet
was reported in Table 3. Among the forms, Fresh Piliostigma thonningii leaves
gave a numerically higher values for Tannin (0.14%), Saponin
(0.13%), Phytate (0.030%), Oxalate (0.03%) and Phenol
(0.006%).
Voluntary feed intake and Weight gain of West
African Dwarf (WAD) Sheep fed Panicum
maximum supplemented with three forms of Piliostigma thonningii leaves is
as shown in Table 5. Total dry matter intake was significantly higher
(P<0.05) in WAD sheep fed on 70% Panicum
maximum with 30% Dried Piliostigma
thonningii leaves (52.65 g/h/day) compared to its
counterpart. Neutral Detergent Fibre (NDF) intake in
animals fed 70% Panicum maximum with
30% Dried Piliostigma thonningii leaves was 29.79 g/h/d while least NDF
intake was found in animal fed 70% P. maximum (PM)
+ 30% fresh Piliostigma thonningii leaves (15.49 g/h/d). Total
ADF intake of animal fed dried Piliostigma thonningii leaves
(20.86 g/h/d) was significantly (P<0.05) higher compared with others treatments.
Crude Protein consumption (5.66 g/h/d) and daily weight gain 77.21g/h/day was
higher in animals fed 70% Panicum maximum with
30% dried Piliostigma thonningii leaves than animals of other treatments.
Nutrient
digestibility of West African Dwarf (WAD) Sheep fed Panicum maximum supplemented with three forms of Piliostigma thonningii leaves as shown in Table 6.
Significantly (P<0.05) highest value were obtained on animals fed 70% Panicum maximum with 30% Dried Piliostigma thonningii
leaves for CP digestibility (77.15%),NDF(78.04%), and ADF(75.56%), followed by
animals fed 70% Panicum maximum with 30% wilted Piliostigma thonningii
leaves and the least value was also observed on animal animals fed 70% Panicum maximum with 30% fresh Piliostigma thonningii
leaves for CP (72.82%), NDF(73.43%), and ADF(73.28%).
Table
1: Effect of Chemical composition of the
P. maximum and different forms of P. thonningiileaves.
CP% NDF% ADF% ADL% GE(cal/g)
P. maximum 11.00a 50.47d 41.20d 40.03c 2.10a
Fresh P.thonningii 10.79b 52.07c 41.26c 40.70c 1.60b
Wilted P.thonningii 10.26b 56.26b 47.09b 41.60b 1.40b
Dried P.thonnigii 10.72b 69.34a 57.26a 43.60a
2.60a
SEM 0.01 0.001
0.001 0.01
1.00
abc Means
with different superscripts within the same row are significantly (P<0.05)
different
Table
2. Minerals composition of
the P. maximum and different forms of
P. thonningiileaves.
|
Minerals Composition
|
Ca%
|
P%
|
K%
|
Mg%
|
Cu mg/kg
|
Fe mg/kg
|
Zn mg/kg
|
|
P.
maximum
|
0.14
|
0.41
|
0.30
|
0.21
|
4.20
|
30.00
|
38.70
|
|
FreshP. thonningii
|
0.62
|
0.77
|
0.62
|
1.18
|
4.13
|
60.20
|
60.57
|
|
WiltedP.thonningii
|
0.57
|
0.69
|
0.36
|
0.24
|
4.11
|
50.84
|
50.70
|
|
Dried P.thonnigii
|
0.40
|
0.48
|
0.25
|
0.18
|
3.04
|
40.38
|
40.13
|
|
SEM
|
0.01
|
0.01
|
0.01
|
0.01
|
0.10
|
0.01
|
0.10
|
abc Means
with different superscripts within the same row are significantly (P<0.05)
different
Table 3:
Anti-Nutrients contents of Experimental diet
Experimental
diet Tannin Saponin Phytate
Oxalate Phenol
P. maximum - - - - -
Fresh P. thonningii 0.14 0.13 0.030 0.03 0.006
WiltedP.thonningii 0.01 0.12 0.005 0.02 0.005
Dried P.thonnigii 0.01 0.11 0.004 0.02 0.04
SEM 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01
Table 4:
Performance of WAD rams fed Piliostigmathonningii.
Parameters T1 T2 T3 T4
SEM
Average Initial Weight (kg) 13.20 13.20 13.18 13.18 0.02
Average
Final Weight (kg) 17.81 17.71 17.80 17.81
0.20
Average
Weight Gain (kg) 4.61 4.51 4.62 4.63
0.20
Daily
Weight Gain (g/day) 76.92 75.13 77.01 77.21
1.54
T1: Animal fed with sole P. maximum (PM) forage at 100% offered fresh.
T2: consisted 70% P. maximum (PM) + 30% fresh Piliostigmathonningii.
T3: was 70% P. maximum (PM) + 30% wilted Piliostigmathonningii
T4: was 70% P. maximum (PM) + 30% dried Piliostigmathonningii
Table 5:
Voluntary Intake and Weight Gain by West African Dwarf (WAD)Sheep
fed three forms of Piliostigma
thonningii supplements
Treatments
Parameters 1 2 3 4 SEM
Control fresh dried wilted
Dry Matter
Intake (g/h/day)
Panicum maximum 112.64a 84.79b 80.53d 82.13c 0.01
P. thonningii 0.00d 24.96c 36.62b 52.65a 0.01
Total 112.64 109.75
117.19 134.78 0.02
NDF Intake
(g/h/day)
Panicum maximum 61.37a 45.85b 43.86d 44.77c
0.01
P. thonningii 0.00d 15.49c 19.99b 29.79a
0.01
Total 61.37 61.34 63.85 74.56 0.02
ADF Intake(g/h/day)
Panicum maximum 46.79d 34.97c 33.19d
33.87c 0.01
P. thonningii 0.00d 14.29c 17.43b
20.86a 0.01
Total 46.79 49.26 50.62
54.73 0.02
CP Intake(g/h/day)
Panicum maximum 13.63a 10.18c 9.72d 11.82b 0.01
P.thonningii 0.00d 2.69c 3.75b 5.66a 0.01
Total 13.63 12.87 13.47 17.48 0.02
Weight
gain (g/h/day) 76.92 75.13 77.01 77.21 0.01
abcdMeans with the
same superscripts within the same row are not significantly different
(P<0.01)
Table
6: Nutrient Digestibility of WAD Sheep fed three forms of Piliostigma thonningii
Nutrients Treatments
____________________________________________________________
Control fresh dried wilted
1
2 3 4 SEM
CP 74.48c
72.83d
77.15a
76.79b 0.02
NDF 74.68c
73.43d 78.04a
76.83b 0.02
ADF 74.53c 73.28d 75.56a 74.70b 0.01
abcdMeans with the
same superscripts within the same row are not significantly different
(P<0.01)
4. DISCUSSION
Chemical composition.
The Crude protein of Panicum maximum was slightly higher than different forms of Piliostigma thonningii leaves.
The Crude protein of the forages ranged from 10.26% to 11.00% which will
provide ammonia required for rumen micro organism to
support optimum microbial activity. Crude protein content (CP%)
of different forms of Piliostigma thonningii leaves
falls within the range of browse plant from West Africa ( Rittner and Reed, 1992). All forms of diet used in the
current study had a CP above 7% of critical level and can be used to supplement
poor quality roughage to increase productivity of ruminant livestock.
Higher values
observed from dried Piliostigma thonningii leaves for NDF, ADF and Lignin respectively
this might occur due to unfavourable reaction which
reduced availability of nutrients during drying of the experimental diet (Smith
et al., 1995). Such reaction has been implicated as causing changes in
the cell-wall structures.. The increase NDF
concentration in wilted and dried Piliostigma thonningii leaves
agreed with the reports of (Parachristous and Nastis, 1994). These researchers reported that drying
generally increase NDF and lignin content of browse leaves. Generally the low
level of NDF can be difficult to achieve in sub tropical/tropical
areas due to the predominance of high NDF forages and so 40% is considered a
more achievable target in sub tropical grazing
system. Jung and Allen (1995) reported that NDF range from (30-80%) in tropical
forages. The ADF ranged above 40% in this present study. ADF content refers to
the cell wall portion consist of cellulose and lignin. As the ADF increase the
digestibility of the forage usually decreases (Albayraket al., 2001).Causing consumption of the forage by animal to reduce (Ayin et al.,
2010). Nussionet al (1998) reported that forage with ADF
content around 40% or more shows low intake and digestibility.
Mineral
Analysis
The mineral analysis
of a plant gives the idea of possibility either the plant should be used for
any feeding trial purpose. The Calcium content for the diet ranged (0.40-0.62%)
and higher than (0.09%) observed for Canavalia ensiformis leaves reported by Akinlade et al., (2007). The calcium content values
found in this study were considered adequate for the optimum performance of
ruminants. The different forms of Piliostigma thonningii leaves
would meet the theoretical Ca requirement of 0.30% Ca diet needed for all form of production in ruminant (ARC,
1980).
Phosphrus (P%) content in the experimental diets ranged between 0.41 to
0.77% and were higher compared to the NRC recommended value of (0.15%) for
phosphorus (NRC, 1985). The level of phosphorus in both diet were consistently
above the 0.2% level which would satisfy livestock dietary maintenance
requirement (NRC, 1985).
The value of
Potassium (K%) in the experimental diets ranged (0.25-
0.62%).The level of %K in the diets was higher than 0.18% recommended for
grazing animals (Mc Dowell, 1985). However, it has
been suggested that ruminants with high productivity may require %K level above
(1.0%) under stress particularly heat stress (Khan et al., 2005). Potassium help to maintain body weight and regulate
water and electrolyte balance in the blood and tissue (NRC, 1985).
The Magnesium (Mg%) content for the experimental diets ranged between 0.21
to 1.18%. The higher forage Mg level found in this present study were above
(0.12-0.20%) of requirement of ruminants diet suggested by (NRC, 1985). Magnesium
is an important mineral element in connection with its role in circulatory
disease such as chronic heart disease and calcium metabolism (Hassan and Umar,
2006).
The Iron (Fe mg/kg)
content of the diets (30.00-60.20 mg/kg) were higher compared to (10.58mg/kg)
recorded for iron content of Mucuna utilis leaves. Iron level obtained in this present
investigation could meet the requirement of ruminants for optimal performance.
The optimal requirement for ruminant is (50mg/kg).
The concentration of
Zinc in the forage fell between (38.70-60.57mg/kg) and higher than (30mg/kg)
zinc suggested at critical dietary level, although it has been recommended that
concentration of 12-20mg/kg are adequate for growing ruminants( Anonymous,
1980). Zinc is a trace element for protein and nucleic acid synthesis and
normal body development during period of rapid growth such as Kid/Lamb and
recovery of illness (Melakuet al., 2005).
The Copper Cu content
of the experimental diets ranged (3.04-4.13mg/kg). Most of the dietary
treatment samples analyzed in the present study fell below the (8 - 14mg/kg)
reported by (Khan et al., 2005).
Forage Cu content decline with forage maturity and is higher in leaf than in
stem. High concentration iron and zinc also reduce copper status and may
increase copper requirement
Anti-Nutrient Content
The tannin values obtained at different forms
of processed Piliostigma thonningii leaves
ranged (0.01-0.14%). Tannin concentration reported in this work was below the
range of 1.43-1.53% reported by Khan et
al., (2005) in wild edible forages consumed by ruminant. Tannin at this
level protects liable plant protein in the rumen and consequently increase the supply of high quality protein into the
duodenum (Mcleod, 1974). Saponin
values from different forms of processed Piliostigma thonningii leaves ranged (0.11-0.13%).
Feedstuff containing saponin had been shown to be
defaulting agent (Teferedegne, 2000) and capable of
reducing methane production (Babayemiet al.,2004b). Saponin have effect on
erythrocyte hemolysis reduction of blood and liver cholesterol, depression of
growth rate, bloat (in ruminant), inhibition of smooth muscle activity, enzyme
inhibition and reduction in nutrient absorption. Saponin
have been reported to alter cell wall permeability and therefore to produce
some toxic effect when ingested (Belmar et
al. 1999).
The phytate content of the different forms of processed Piliostigma thonningii leaves
ranged (0.005-0.030%). The phytate content in this
present investigation were lower than 1.35% in Psophocarpus tetragonolobus leaves reported by Alalade et al (2016). The phytic
value was lower than the range value of 3.47% and 3.24% reported for some
browse legume in Nigeria (Oke, 1969). The negative
effect of phytate in nutrition is the chelating of
certain essential element such as Ca, Fe, Mg and Zn
this contribute to mineral deficiency in people whose
dietary on some food rich in phytate for their
mineral intake (Hurell, 2005). Nevertheless, phytate are considered as phyto-nutrient
providing an antioxidant effect and their mineral binding properties prevent
colon cancer by reducing oxidative stress in the lumen of the intestinal tract
(Vucenik and Shamsuddin,
2003).Oxalate values of the different
forms of Piliostigma thonningii leaves in this study ranged (0.02-0.03%).
The oxalate content of experimental diet lower than (0.40%) Parkia biglobosa leaves
reported by Alalade
et al (2016). Oxalate
concentration in the browse plant used was tolerable forage containing oxalate
is less of a problem for ruminants but at a high concentration may cause
digestive disturbance (Seifert, 1996), kidney failure and death (Acamovic et al., 2004 ).
The highest values
was obtained for drymatter intake, Crude protein
intake, NDF intake and ADF intake on
animal fed 70% Panicum maximum with 30% dried Piliostigma thonningii leaves compared to other treatments. These
values were higher than the (33.36g/h/d) reported by Arigbede,
(2007).The CP, NDF and ADF digestibility values obtained were higher than the
values 62.17, 62.48 and 62.29% recorded by Youssufet al. (2005).
5. CONCLUSION
Piliostigma thonnningii leaves can be fed
with P. maximum in fresh, wilted and
dried forms, the secondary metabolites in Piliostigma thonningii was further depleted by drying, this
however induced higher NDF but did not inhibit intake. Weight gain, Voluntary
intake, Nutrient digestibility were favoured with
animals fed 70% Panicum maximum with 30% dried Piliostigmathonningii
leaves
It is suggested that Piliostigma thonningii could
not be used as a sole diet for sheep, but could serve as supplement especially
when dry or wilted at up to 30% and used as a reliable dry season short term
feed supplement in small holder livestock farming system in the tropics.
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