Greener Journal of Environmental Management and Public Safety Vol. 10(1), pp. 10-17, 2021 ISSN: 2354-2276 Copyright ©2021, the copyright of this article is retained by the author(s) https://gjournals.org/GJEMPS

The Impact of Discharged Automotive Oil on Heavy Metal Concentrations on Well Water around Mechanic Workshops in Nasarawa West Senatorial District, Nasarawa State.

Yahaya U.²; Tukura B.W.¹; Madu P.C.¹; Saleh Borori²; Gav L.B.³

¹Department of Chemistry, Nasarawa State University, Keffi, NIGERIA.

² Department of Science Laboratory Technology, Federal Polytechnic Nasarawa, NIGERIA.

³Department of Chemistry, Federal University of Agriculture Makurdi, NIGERIA.

Article info	Abstract
Article No.: 052121048 Type: Research	The concentration of heavy metals in ground water in Nasarawa West Senatorial District was analyzed using a standard method. A total of one hundred and forty two samples from different auto-mechanic workshops and control sites were collected at random between July-September representing wet (rainy) season and February-March representing dry season were analyzed for both heavy metals (Cobalt, Zinc, Cadmium, Copper, Nickel, Manganese, Chromium, and Lead) and physicochemical parameters using standard methods. Under ground water and used/unused engine oil were collected and analyzed using Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometers (AAS).The results of the heavy metal concentrations in water from all the sample locations and physiochemical parameters of water samples were presented in tables. Results generally showed elevation in metal ion concentrations around automobile workshops investigated vis-a-vis the impact of the automobile workshops in metal ion concentrations. The values obtained from the analysis showed that most of the values of metal concentrations and the physicochemical parameters were higher in the dry season than that of the rainy season. This may be as a result of percolation, dissolution or diffusion which may likely occur.
Accepted: 23/05/2021 Published: 16/08/2021
*Corresponding Author Yahaya U E-mail: Yahyus58@ gmail.com; benedictgav@ gmail.com,
Keywords: Automotive oil; Heavy metals; Well water; Mechanic workshop.

1. INTRODUCTION

The increase in population worldwide has led to a high level of industrialization and urbanization, which in turn have led to environmental pollution arising from the indiscriminate discharge of industrial effluents. These effluents may contain most common heavy metals, such as Hg, Zn, Cu, Co, Pb, Cr (Madu et al.; 2007). There is need for research and public information on these metals, otherwise unknown dangers may create irreparable environmental damage. (Olonisakin et al.; 2005).

Heavy metals are natural components of the earth crusts. They are stable and persistent environmental contaminants of coastal waters and sediments. Since they cannot be degraded or destroyed, they enter our bodies via food chain, drinking water and air (Lawrence, 1990). Examples of heavy metals include mercury (Hg), cadmium (Cd) arsenic (Ar) chromium (Cr) lead (Pb) nickel (Ni) zinc (Zn), and selenium (Se). Interest in metals like Zinc, Copper, Iron and Selenium which are required for metabolic activity in organisms lies in the narrow path between their essentiality and toxicity. Other heavy metals like lead, cadmium and mercury may exhibit extreme toxicity even at low levels under certain conditions, thus necessitating regular study, monitoring and assessment of heavy metal pollution of sensitive aquatic environment (Nriagu, 1996).

Water pollution is contamination of water by foreign matter that deteriorates the quality of the water. Water pollution covers pollutions in liquid forms like ocean pollution and river pollution. As the term applies, liquid pollution occurs in the oceans, lakes, streams, rivers, underground water and bays, in short liquid-containing areas. It involves the release of toxic substances, pathogenic germs, substances that require much oxygen to decompose, easy-soluble substances, radioactivity, etc. that becomes deposited upon the bottom and their accumulations will interfere with the condition of aquatic ecosystems.

2. MATERIALS AND METHODS

2.1 Materials

Soil sample, water sample, vegetables, nitric acid, sulphuric acid, hydrofluoric acid, hydrogen peroxide, potassium chloride, sallicyclic acid, Barrium chloride, potassium chromate, silver nitrate, potassium dichromate, manganese sulphate, alkali-iodide-azide, potassium sulphate, Ammonium sulphate, Calcium chloride, magnesium sulphate, ferric chloride, phosphate buffer, Sodium hydroxide, deionized water, atomic absorption spectrophotometer, spectrophotometer, UV-visible spectrometer, microwave digestion system, micro-porous membrane, thermometer, turbdometer, pH meter, conductivity meter, weighing balance, refrigerator, polyethene bag, 500 cm³ plastic gallon, aluminium foil, rubber band, measuring cylinder, sample bottle, hydrochloride Beaker, evaporated dish, hot plate, Oven, incubator, blast funnel, standard flask, erlemayer flask, pipette, burrete, desiccator, Wattman filter paper, Crucible, Agate Mortar, Nylon sieve

2.2 Methods

Water sample (250cm³) each from the dry and rainy seasons collected were measured into a 500 cm³beaker and 5 cm³ of concentrated hydrochloric acid added and then evaporated to 25cm³ over a hot plate. The concentrate was transferred to 50cm³ standard flask and diluted to the mark with deionized water. This was kept prior to analysis.

Physico-chemical Parameters Determination

Parameters such as temperature, electrical conductivity (E.C), pH and Dissolved Oxygen (DO) were measured at the sampling site. The samples were then transported to the laboratory for analysis of total dissolved solid, turbidity, nitrate, sulphate, phosphate, chloride, chemical oxygen demand, and biological oxygen demand. The parameters were carried out according to the standard methods as described by Lenore, (1989).

3.3 Heavy Metal Content Determinations

The level of heavy metals cobalt, zinc, cadmium, copper, manganese, chromium and lead in the filtrates of the digested samples were determined using Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer (SHIMAZU) by aspirating sample solution into the machine. Three (3) replicate determination of each sample were carried out for heavy metals etc.

4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 DATA ON LEVEL OF PHYSICOHEMICAL PARAMETERS Table 1; Levels of Physicochemical Parameters of Water Sample from Toto L.G.A.
Parameter	Gadabuke	Toto	Tudu-Uku
E.C. (µS/cm)	0.4	0.15	0.55
T.D.S. (mg/L)	0.2	0.07	0.27
TURB/NTU	1.65	1	1.29
NO3 (mg/L)	0.4	2.4	3
SO4^2(mg/L)	18	23	36
SO4^3(mg/L)	2.3	5.8	12.7
CI (mg/L)	400	160	140
BOD (mg/L)	3.33	6.25	2.6
COD (mg/L)	10.05	0	40.2
DO (mg/L)	4.7	4.7	4.71
COLOR	90	73	59
Ph	7.8	6.4	7.21
Temp (^0C)	28.5	27.6	28.5
Table 2; Levels of Physicochemical Parameters of Water Sample from Nasarawa L.G.A.
Parameter	Shamagye	Mararaba	Nasarawa
E.C. (µS/cm)	0.62	0.03	0.031
T.D.S. (mg/L)	0.31	0.01	0.15
TURB/NTU	2.45	1.51	1.59
NO3 (mg/L)	2.3	5.2	4.8
SO4^2(mg/L)	40	27	30
SO4^3(mg/L)	5	0.9	3.9
CI (mg/L)	143	207	144
BOD (mg/L)	5.2	1.72	4.13
COD (mg/L)	10.05	0	0
DO (mg/L)	4.56	4.63	4.63
COLOR	85	70	63
Ph	7.89	7.09	8.11
Temp (^0C)	26.6	26.9	26.2
Table 3; Levels of Physicochemical Parameters of Water Sample from Kokona L.G.A.
Parameter	Agwada	K/Gwari	Garaku
E.C. (µS/cm)	0.05	0.42	0.08
T.D.S. (mg/L)	0.02	0.21	0.4
TURB/NTU	7.27	1.45	8.89
NO3 (mg/L)	3.2	1.9	3.3
SO4^2(mg/L)	40	39	29
SO4^3(mg/L)	4.2	3.5	4.5
CI (mg/L)	157	115	140
BOD (mg/L)	3.46	5.2	2.88
COD (mg/L)	10.05	10.2	20.1
DO (mg/L)	4.7	4.43	4.83
COLOR	93	75	86
Ph	8.26	7.46	8.36
Temp (^0C)	28	27	27.4
Table 4; Levels of Physicochemical Parameters of Water Sample from Keffi L.G.A.
Parameter	Keffi	KNG	KMG
E.C. (µS/cm)	0.09	0.29	0.52
T.D.S. (mg/L)	0.04	0.14	0.26
TURB/NTU	4.63	1.09	3.08
NO3 (mg/L)	0.06	2.3	1.9
SO4^2(mg/L)	33.6	42	24
SO4^3(mg/L)	0.92	0.65	3.82
CI (mg/L)	158	130	208
BOD (mg/L)	1.36	4.14	2.82
COD (mg/L)	30.15	40.2	30.15
DO (mg/L)	4.63	4.77	4.83
COLOR	83	58	69
Ph	7.23	7.3	8.01
Temp (^0C)	27.8	27.5	26.4

Table 5; Levels of Physicochemical Parameters of Water Sample from karu L.G.A.
Parameter	Karu	Nyanya	Karshi
E.C. (µS/cm)	0.7	0.24	0.57
T.D.S. (mg/L)	0.35	0.12	0.28
TURB/NTU	5.55	1.26	0.92
NO3 (mg/L)	0.68	2.6	1.3
SO4^2(mg/L)	35	28	33
SO4^3(mg/L)	0.7	7.1	5.3
CI (mg/L)	220	145	117
BOD (mg/L)	3.4	3.33	1.66
COD (mg/L)	40.2	20.1	30.15
DO (mg/L)	4.83	4.63	4.9
COLOR	87	67	81
Ph	8	8.36	7.81
Temp (^0C)	20.2	28.1	26

4.2 RESULTS OF CONCENTRATION OF METALS WATER Table 6; Concentration (mg/L) of heavy metals in well water from TOTO L.G.A.
	Gadabuke		Toto		Tudu-Uku
Element	Mean	CV	Mean	CV	Mean	CV
Co	21.72± 1.34	6.17	ND	ND	7.23 ± 0.45	6.22
Zn	0.82± 0.04	4.88	0.13 ± 0.04	30.77	0.44 ± 0.01	2.27
Cd	0.9 ± 0.13	14.44	2 ± 0.12	6.00	1.62 ± 0.14	8.64
Cu	1.24 ± 0.1	8.06	1.14 ± 0.16	14.04	3.02 ± 0.21	6.95
Ni	10.73 ± 0.52	4.85	2.34 ± 0.14	5.98	11.4 ± 0.94	8.25
Mn	5.37 ± 0.43	8.01	2.01 ± 0.29	14.43	6.19 ± 0.42	6.79
Cr	14.49 ± 1.22	8.42	0.71 ± 0.06	8.45	35.32 ± 2.87	8.13
Pb	46.91 ± 2.88	6.14	25.02 ± 2.09	8.35	8.33 ± 0.78	9.36

Table 7: Concentration (Mg/L) of Heavy Metals in well water from Nasarawa L.G.A.

Mararaba

Nasarawa

Shamagye

Element

Mean

CV

Mean

CV

Mean

SD

CV

Co

0

ND

0

ND

26.61 ± 2.29

2.29

8.61

Zn

20.02 ± 1.67

8.34

48.43 ± 3.08

8.22

2.72 ± 0.28

0.28

10.29

Cd

1.68 ± 0.11

6.55

2.84 ± 0.29

10.21

1.91 ± 0.26

0.26

13.61

Cu

1.64 ± 0.17

10.37

1.65 ± 0.17

10.30

2.45 ± 0.29

0.29

11.84

Ni

50.72 ± 4.16

8.20

0

ND

14.12 ± 1.16

1.16

8.22

Mn

140.28 ± 9.82

7.00

224.52 ± 18.06

8.04

142.57 ± 11.42

11.42

8.01

Cr

11.81 ± 0.97

8.21

14.42 ± 1.29

8.95

7.21 ± 0.67

0.67

9.29

Pb

5.22 ± 0.49

9.39

68.81 ± 4.87

7.08

53.21 ± 4.37

4.37

8.21

Table 8: Concentration (mg/L) of Heavy Metals in well water from Kokona L.G.A.
	Agwada		Garaku		Kufan-Gwari
Element	Mean	CV	Mean	CV	Mean	CV
Co	137.7 ± 11.51	8.36	118.32 ± 8.38	7.08	60.42 ± 5.06	8.37
Zn	1.05 ± 0.17	16.19	2.72 ± 0.29	10.66	0	ND
Cd	1.05 ± 0.19	18.10	2.91 ± 0.26	8.93	1.11 ± 0.19	17.12
Cu	2.79 ± 0.22	7.89	0.86 ± 0.16	18.60	2.11 ± 0.28	13.27
Ni	35.91 ± 2.98	8.30	9.29 ± 034	3.66	0.42 ± 0.09	21.43
Mn	2.32 ± 0.31	13.36	11.48 ± 0.93	8.10	0	ND
Cr	15.74 ± 1.37	8.70	13.73 ± 109	7.94	15.72 ± 1.37	8.72
Pb	0	ND	19.83 ± 1.47	7.41	6.34 ± 0.59	9.31

Table 9 : Concentration (mg/L) of Heavy Metals in well water from Keffi L.G.A.
	Keffi-Nasarawa Junction		Keffi-Main Garage		S/G keffi (NYSC)
Element	Mean	CV	Mean	CV	Mean	CV
Co	0	ND	67.61 ± 5.49	8.12	45.93 ± 3.67	7.99
Zn	6.12 ± 0.123	2.12	2.51 ± 0.29	11.55	2.32 ± 0.38	16.38
Cd	1.35 ± 0.18	13.33	1.19 ± 0.12	10.08	0.22 ± 0.09	40.91
Cu	1.81 ± 0.19	10.50	3.51 ± 0.36	10.26	1.91 ± 0.28	14.66
Ni	24.83 ± 2.21	8.90	15.36 ± 1.29	8.40	22.9 ± 1.62	7.07
Mn	3.51 ± 0.39	11.11	8.62 ± 0.76	8.82	1.59 ± 0.12	7.55
Cr	11.82 ± 0.97	8.21	11.19 ± 0.87	7.77	15.01 ± 1.27	8.46
Pb	80.33 ± 6.49	8.08	2.12 ± 0.29	13.68	0	ND

Table 10: Concentration (mg/L) of Heavy Metals in well water from Karu L.G.A.
	Karu			Nyanya			Karshi
Element	Mean	SD	CV	Mean	SD	CV	Mean	SD	CV
Co	0	0	ND	39.88	3.81	9.55	0	0	ND
Zn	0	0	ND	1.23	0.17	13.82	4.22	0.37	8.77
Cd	0.32	0.09	28.13	2.23	0.21	9.42	1.82	0.24	13.19
Cu	0.51	0.02	3.92	2.34	0.28	11.97	2.01	0.25	12.44
Ni	0	0	ND	9.52	0.81	8.51	0	0	ND
Mn	0.33	0.04	12.12	7.61	0.72	9.46	6.38	0.63	9.87
Cr	9.22	0.76	8.24	0	0	ND	13.13	1.26	9.60
Pb	10.42	0.91	8.73	61.51	5.03	8.18	0	0	ND

4.2 DISCUSSION

Physicochemical parameters of water samples

The interaction of a compound with it physical environment determine its physicochemical properties (e.g. solubility and passive permeability). The analytical data of various physicochemical parameters indicator that some parameters like P^H, electrical conductivity, total dissolved solids, total suspended solids, turbidity and sodium are found to be in excess than the prescribed limit in some water samples of the study areas. The quality is a function of the physical, chemical and biological particular use it in intended for (Tijani, 1994). The temperature range observed in the analyses corroborate with the values observed by Oni (2000) who observed a temperature range (28^o – 30^oc and 26^o – 31^oc) of water samples analysed at Ibadan, Oyo State and this is also very close to the values observed by Buekers (2007) who observed a temperature range of 26.7 and 29.10^oc on Shallow water of Ibadan. Electrical Conductivity is a measure of the amount of electrical current a material can carry on its ability to carry a current. The values obtained for electrical conductivity ranged from 0.03 to 0.62 µS/cm in mararaba and Shamageye respectively. These values were lower than that reported by Pam et al,; (2013), value recorded ranged from 8.23 – 14-46. The values obtained were within the WHO standard recommended limit.

From the values of total dissolved solids, all the values are very far below the WHO recommended guide line value of 1000mg/L. Low TDS is said to be a characteristics of hills and upload areas that represent areas of recharge according to Verma et al.;(2010). Water containing TDS less than 1000mgle could be considered to be fresh water and good enough both for drinking and irrigational purposes, as this would not affect the Osmotic pressure of soil solution as reported by Gupta et al.;(2009) and Navneet et al.;(2010).

Chemical Oxygen demand (COD) values ranged from 10.20 mg/L – 43.25mg/L in kufan-Gwari and Karu respectively. In general, the COD value for this study areas suggest a rather low organic content in the water samples of this study areas. As organic matter is the major source of carbonaceous and nitrogenous substances in soil and water bodies arising from anthropogenic sources pH values of water samples from each area are displayed in the results of the physicochemical parameters. A pH range of 6.40 – 8.65 were obtained in all, Nyanya had the most acidic pH of 8.65 rising slightly above the guide line limit of 6.5 – 8.5, thus indicating corrosiveness. The result obtained is consistent with that obtained by Basavaraja et al.; (2011).

The biological oxygen demand may be defined as this oxygen required for the microorganism to perform biological decomposition of dissolved solids or organic matter in the waste water under aerobic condition Manjare et al.; (2010). The biological oxygen demand reported for this investigation ranged from 1.36mg/L to 6.25mg/L in Keffi and Toto. The high increase in BOD may be due to possible addition of high amount of waste oil along with rain water from the surrounding and addition of organic waste by certain human activities which also be responsible for the increase in BOD as reported by Adnan et al.; (2010). The lowest BOD was recorded in Keffi 1.3mg/L due to more vegetation.

Chloride concentration ranged between 115mg/L to 450mg/L in K/Gwari and Gadabuke. High chloride ion concentration indicates organic pollution which could be attributed to used engine oil spills in the water. Chloride is a natural substance present in all portable water as well as sewage effluence as metallic salt. Many researchers reported that rainfall add chloride directly. The chloride concentrations in this study are well below the maximum permissible limits 500mgle (WHO, 1993).

Nitrates contribute to fresh water through discharge of sewage and industrial wastes and run off from agricultural fields. The concentration of nitrate recorded in this study ranged between 0.06mg/L to 5.45mg/L in Sabon Garin Keffi (NYSC) and Mararaba. The levels of nitrate concentration in all the location were within the United States Public Health Service recommended limit of 10mg/L (EPA, 2014).

Dissolved oxygen (DO) is one of the most important parameter in assessing water quality and understanding the physical and biological process prevailing in the water. This is very important because many researchers reported that DO in aquatic ecosystem brings out various biochemical changes and it influence on metabolic activities on organisms. Adefemi S. O. and E. E. Awokunmi, (2010) reports that, good water should have a solubility or oxygen 7.0mg/L at 30^o. DO of the water analyzed ranged from 4.43mg/L to 5.64mg/L in k/Gwari and Karshi. The dissolve oxygen of the water sample collected from the study area in close to the prescribed values.

The highest obtained for Turbidity is 8.89 NTU in Garaku and lowest Turbidity is 9.02 NTU in Karshi. Turbidity is mainly a function of the suspended materials in the water which ranges from colloidal to coarse dispersion. The values of turbidity recorded in this study from different water sources corroborate with ones recorded for some well water samples collected from different mechanic workshops located in other parts of the country, Nigeria as reported by Aremu et al.; (2008), Gav et al.; (2015) and Fapetu OM. (2000) where they recorded turbidity values from 0.86 – 9.10 NTU, 0.91 – 9.05 NTU and 0.91 – 9.07 NTU respectively.

Phosphorous (PO₄^3-) occurs in natural water and in waste water almost solely as phosphates Agarwal et al.; (2011). The result of present study showed that the highest levels of phosphate was recorded in Tudu-Uku 13.7mg/L and lowest in Keffi-Nasarawa Junction 0.65mg/L. Phosphate is an essential element for plant life, but when there is too much of it in water, it can speed up eutrophication (a reduction in dissolved oxygen in water bodies caused by an increase of mineral and organic nutrients of rivers and lakes. The maximum recommended limited for phosphate in drinking water is 5.0mg/L (EPA 2005).

Colour in water may result from the presence natural metallic ions (iron from manganese). The highest colour concentration from the study area was in Gadabuke and Agwada 95.0 and lowest in Keffi-Nasarawa Junction 58.0. The World Health Organization (WHO) standard is less than 5 colours units, (WHO, 2004).

Sulphate in widely distributed in nature and may be present in natural water. The levels of sulphate concentration in the water samples ranged from 18.00mg/L to 45.30mg/L in Gadabuke and Keffi-Nasarawa Junction respectively. The World Health Organization standard of sulphate concentration in water is 500 mg/L. The values obtained for sulphate from this study showed that the levels were far below the recommended limit and is save for consumption (WHO, 1993). The values obtained for this investigation were below the findings of Gomez et al.; (1995).

CONCENTRATION OF METALS

The concentrations of heavy metals in water sample from all the locations were summarized in Table 6 – 10. The highest concentration of Cobalt was reported in Garaku with mean value of 137.7 mg/L and lowest in Tudu-uku with mean value of 7.23 mg/L. The metal was not detected in Toto, Nasarawa, Mararaba, Keffi-Nasarawa Junction, Karu and Karshi. All the values obtained for Cobalt concentration in the analysis were above the Who standard (0.1 mg/L, 2004).

The concentration of Zinc is highest in Nasarawa 48.43 mg/L and the lowest concentration was recorded in Tudu – Uku 0.44 mg/L. Zinc was not found at the locations such Kufan – Gwari, Agwada, and Karu. The highest concentration of Zinc could be as a result of natural deposit. The values obtained for Zinc concentration in all the location were below the WHO. WHO standard for Zinc concentration is (50 mg/L, WHO 2004).

The highest concentration of Cadmium in the water sample was recorded in Garaku with mean value of 2.91 mg/L and the lowest was recorded in Sabon Garin Keffi with mean value of 0.22 mg/L. The result obtained for Cadmium concentration in the water samples were in most cases below the WHO recommended limit (5.0 mg/L).

The analysis of Copper shows that the highest concentration was recorded in Keffi-main market 3.51 mg/L and lowest in Karu 0.51 mg/L. The metal is widely distributed across all the location. Result obtained for the analysis was lower than the WHO (1000 mg/L) standard for Copper concentration in water.

Nickel records it highest concentration in Mararaba 50.72 mg/L and the lowest in Kufan Gwari 0.42 mg/L. The metal was not at detectable limit of AAS in sample collected from Nasarawa town. The result obtained for Nickel concentration some cases lower than the WHO standard (50.0 mg/L, WHO 2004).

Manganese has its highest concentration in Nasarawa 224.52 mg/L and the lowest concentration was recorded in Karu 0.33 mg/L. The results show no trace of Manganese in Kufan – Gwari.

The result of the analysis of Chromium shows that the highest concentration was obtained in Tudu – Uku 35.32 mg/L and the lowest was recorded in Toto 0.71 mg/L. There was no trace of Chromium metal in Nyanya. The high concentration of the metal is in Tudu – Uku where no activity of Mechanics in the area. This can be concluded that the high concentration of the metal could be as a result of natural deposit. The result obtained is within the WHO standards for Chromium concentration in water (50.0 mg/L).

Lead concentration in water sample collected from the study area shows that the highest concentration of the metal was recorded in Keffi – Nasarawa Junction with mean value 80.33 mg/L and lowest in Keffi- Main Garage with 2.12 mg/L. The metal was not at detectable limit of AAS in Agwada, Sabon Garin Keffi and Karshi.

The WHO permissible limit for Lead concentration in water sample is (50 mg/L WHO, 2014). These variations in metal concentration of the analysis of water sample were as a result of evaporation, percolation and dissolution of the metals. The result obtained of heavy metal concentration in this analysis of water sample is similar to that reported by Hanuman et al.; 2012.

5. CONCLUSION

There are many different chemicals, substances and process used in auto-mechanic workshops, which are potentially dangerous, both to the environment and to health of human beings. This is very clear from the results of the analytical investigation of the physicochemical parameters and heavy metals analysis of waters from the sample sites of Nasarawa West Senatorial district that there is high degree of contamination and pollution. It was observed that the various pollutants (heavy metals) build up to very high concentration in the soils, and thereby percolate into the wells around the auto-mechanic workshop thereby posing great threat to the people that drink the water.

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Cite this Article: Yahaya U; Tukura BW; Madu PC; Saleh B; Gav LB (2021). The Impact of Discharged Automotive Oil on Heavy Metal Concentrations on Well Water around Mechanic Workshops in Nasarawa West Senatorial District, Nasarawa State. Greener Journal of Environmental Management and Public Safety, 10(1):10-17.