Greener Journal of Social Sciences

ISSN: 2276-7800                 ICV: 5.99

Submitted: 26/01/2016                                Accepted: 03/01/2016                              Published: 23/03/2016

Subject Area of Article: Conflict Resolution

Research Article (DOI: http://doi.org/10.15580/GJSS.2016.2.012616022)

Women’s Participation in Resolving Church Conflicts. A Case of the Salvation Army, Bindura Citadel, Zimbabwe

Masunungure C¹ and Mbwirire J^1*

¹Faculty of Applied Social Science, Zimbabwe Open University, P O BOX MP 1119 MT Pleasant, Harare Zimbabwe

*Corresponding Author Email: tkjmbwirire@ yahoo. com

ABSTRACT

This study investigates women’s participation in resolving church conflicts. The study used a mixed method approach combining focus group discussions, in-depth interviews and congregants survey. The findings of the study were that women in the Salvation Army Church, Bindura Citadel were actively participating in resolving church conflicts through counseling, mediation, negotiation, and facilitation and by being members of the powerful Pastoral Care Council whose main role was to hear matters referred from the lower echelons of the church. It was established that the church was organized and administered in military style with all congregants referred to as “soldiers” and leadership titles bearing military ranks. The church faced the challenge of male domination due to the patriarchal nature of African and church communities, lack of self confidence and esteem as well as the lack of support from fellow women. The study recommended that women be trained and encouraged to participate and support one another in resolving church conflicts. Furthermore, church policy reforms were recommended to foster women participation.

Key words: Women participation, conflict, religious conflict, conflict resolution.

1.0 INTRODUCTION

The main purpose for the existence of the church is to provide an environment of peace, harmony and sound human development. Unresolved church conflicts resulted in church splits, civil litigation, divorce and a decrease in the number of church members. In a sample of 20 Bishops of churches under UDACIZA, Beta (2015) noted that greed, power hunger, doctrinal issues and lust constituted the highest percentages in causing church splits. These variables caused church splits when they remained unresolved. Unresolved church conflicts also affected church growth as some members left the church and new members avoided joining the church as a result.

The church dealt with religious conflicts which related to issues of church doctrine violation. For example, while the church teaches that its members should not indulge in alcohol, there was an increase in the number of members who were caught on the wrong side of this rule. As a result, church leadership had to grapple with what course of action to take in order to deter future violators of such a rule. Other doctrinal violations creating conflict were issues such as the issue of living without sinning (holiness) and the functions of the Holy Spirit where members imitated other non-Salvation Army teachings thereby threatening the perpetuation of this church’s doctrine to the next generation. There was an increase in number of members especially the youths who preferred adopting Pentecostal ways of praising and worshipping God such as making loud noises during church services. This created a conflict between the young and older generations. Cases of doctrinal violations were dealt with by the church disciplinary board whose members were drawn from the top and middle echelons of the church.

Women constituted a larger number than men in both national, (ZIMSTAT, 2012) and church population in Zimbabwe, (Walter, 1990). Their role in society included the provision of motherhood to humanity. In church, women played a pivotal role as they were responsible for all chores such as cooking and cleaning, singing in church choirs, and contributing financially through offerings and tithes. Older women also provided counsel and guidance to younger girls and women in issues related to morality, courtship and marriage. As partners to men, married women also contributed meaningfully to church doctrine and governance through their husbands who were in positions of leadership as some married men consulted their wives at home  before  crucial  church  meetings.  Considering  their larger population than men in church, women were part of the actors in and causation of the many conflicts experienced among congregants, hence the need to have them participate as part of the solution to church conflicts.

The most common alternative dispute resolution methods used in this church were mediation and negotiation. According to Mellamed (2000), mediation is “assisted negotiation” and negotiation is “communications for agreement”. The main aim of all mediation and negotiation in the church was to find common ground among conflicting parties and to resolve such conflicts peacefully and without resorting to the use of litigation. It was the role of top and middle leadership to provide the said alternative dispute resolution solutions in all cases of both intrapersonal and interpersonal conflict. Cases of intrapersonal conflicts were assigned to selected individuals in leadership with training and experience in psychotherapy and doctrinal teachings. It would be easier for such trained and experienced mediators and counsellors to handle cases of conflict as these cases were sensitive and required expertise and skill which could only be acquired through training or experience. Any mishandling of conflicts would result in the acceleration of same thereby further compounding the problem. Matters related to marital conflicts were handled by elderly men and women in leadership who addressed them through men and women’s forums. Although women constituted the highest number of congregants in the church and they were mostly the victims of the conflicts as cited earlier, their participation in resolving these conflicts remained low. Women are involved and participate in church conflicts as either victims, or perpetrators. However, their involvement in resolving conflicts was low although they constituted the highest number of congregants in most churches. Is women participation and involvement considered when resolving church conflicts?

1.1 Objectives

   To explore the role of women in resolving church conflicts.

   To identify the challenges faced by women in resolving church conflicts and how   those challenges may be overcome.

   To formulate a conflict resolution framework and model upon which future conflict resolution practitioners in the church will base their practice.

1.2 Research Questions

   What is the role of women in resolving church conflicts?

   What are the challenges faced by women in resolving church conflicts?

   What cost effective methods can be used to enhance and or improve women participation?

2.0 METHODOLOGY

The study used the descriptive survey design which incorporates the Case Study approach. This study was descriptive in nature. By handing out questionnaires, conducting interviews and focus group discussions, the study pursued the path of descriptive research.

2.1 Study Area

Located in Bindura’s Chipadze high density suburb, the Salvation Army Bindura Citadel was established as a branch of the Salvation Army Zimbabwe Territory in 1931. The Salvation Army Bindura Citadel draws its membership from the medium and all the high density areas of Bindura namely Aerodrome, Chipindura, Chipadze, Chiwaridzo, Chiwaridzo Phases 1, 2 and 3 as well as Garikai.

2.3 Population

The population under study consists of about 600 congregants who include 2 ordained ministers of the ranks of major, who are in the top leadership, 125 lay leaders comprising of middle and junior leadership as well as 475 ordinary members of the church. The church’s leadership titles are fashioned after military ranks.

2.4 Sample and Sampling Technique

The sample for this study was 126 comprising of 2 top leaders (for the two in-depth interviews), 24 participants from medium to lower leadership levels (for two focus group discussions) and 100 ordinary congregants (for participation in responding to questionnaires).

            In this study the researchers used stratified sampling to put respondents into categories, the simple random sampling technique to come up with participants for surveys using questionnaires and purposive sampling to identify participants for the two focus group discussions. Expert sampling (a type of purposive sampling) was used to select the key informants in the top leadership for purposes of conducting in-depth interviews. The sample for questionnaires was one hundred participants. Two focus group discussions comprising of twelve participants per group were also conducted. Two in-depth interviews were held with one top leader for each interview.

3.0       DATA PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSIONS

21.3% of respondents were aged between 18-24 years, 33.7% of respondents were aged 25-35 years, 22.5% of respondents were aged between 36-45 years, 9% of respondents were aged 46-54 years while 13.5% were above the age of 55. Based on gender, 25.6% respondents were male while 74.4% were female. On marital status, 51.7% were married, 30.3% were single, 4.5% were divorced while 13.5% were widowed.

On educational level, 6.7% had a qualification on primary level, 51.1% had secondary level, 41.1% had tertiary level while 1.1% had no schooling. On period or duration of being in church, 8% had stayed between 1-5 years, 16 % had stayed for 6-10 years, 28 % had stayed for 11-20 years while 48 % stayed for above 21 years.

 Data presented above indicates that the majority of participants were aged between 25 and 35 years while the least age group was 46 – 54 years. More females than males participated in this study. Also married people constituted the majority of participants. Level of education for the participants was quite good since only 1% of the respondents indicated that they had no schooling. Of importance to note is the fact that participants had stayed for more than a year in church.

 This biographical data concurs with the findings of ZIMSTAT (2012) which stated that there were more women (51.9%) than men (48.1%) in Zimbabwe and further tallies with Walter (1990) who observed that there were more women than men in churches worldwide. The fact that more respondents who took part in this survey had spent 21 years or more in the church under review is in the view of the researchers, supportive of the notion that The Salvation Army, Zimbabwe Territory under which the Bindura Citadel falls has been in existence since 1 May 1931, (The General of the Salvation Army, 2004) and it has capacity to keep its old membership, which fosters the church’s legacy.

On women roles in resolving church conflicts 50% of the respondents agreed that women participate as heads while the other 50% disagree. 78% of respondents indicated that women resolve church conflicts as educators while 22% disagree. 96% of the respondents said women resolved church conflicts as counselors while 4% disagree. 77% of respondents indicated women’s role in resolving church conflicts as supporters of men while 23% disagree. 45% of respondents indicated that women’s role in church conflicts are victims while 55% disagree. Also, 56% of the respondents indicated that women are perpetrators while 44% disagree.

Table 2 above reflects that most respondents agreed that women participated in resolving church conflicts. This fact was comprehensively and positively validated by the results from both focus group discussions and in-depth interviews. This was an indication of the high level of awareness in the church on the participation of both sides of the gender divide. Furthermore, the same table highlighted the general church membership’s understanding of the roles that women played in resolving church conflicts. Being a female-dominated church, the findings are a clear indication that women in this church indeed participated in resolving church conflicts at every level of the church leadership ladder. Their participation was highly noted by the respondents as that of being educators, counsellors and supporters of men through their taking part in leadership and as members of the most powerful Pastoral Care Council, the disciplinary organ of the church which functions as the appeal board for all conflict resolution matters. Results from both focus group discussions and in-depth interviews concurred with the views of questionnaire respondents; in itself an indication of the authenticity of the latter’s opinions on the matter.

All informants confirmed that women are involved and participate in resolving church conflicts. When asked to state the role of women in resolving church conflicts, many of the group members posited that women’s roles were to act as leaders who provide one on one counselling in minamato yemudzimba (home cell groups), ruwadzano (women groupings) various church groups as well as their membership to the Pastoral Care Council which is responsible for disciplinary proceedings as a way of resolving church conflicts. The key informants were probed to comment on the sentiments of questionnaire respondents and focus group discussion participants on the role and participation of women in resolving church conflicts. The informants stated that women in this church had a role to help reconcile feuding parties through advisory counselling, preaching and for some, their involvement in the Pastoral Care Council which is responsible for resolving conflicts referred to it by the lower levels of the church leadership. Educated women were active participants in resolving church conflicts in view of the fact that they were the majority in general church membership and church leadership. Respondents went on to say that some women not in leadership were actively involved in resolving church conflicts on the basis of their elderly ages and experience.

Although the participation of women as family heads and in support of men within the church is insignificant, their mere participation in this context is consistent with the provisions of Genesis 2:18 where women are described as helpers of men to bring about stability in the home and family. This is further supported by Corsi (2012) who described Barak Obama (USA President) as having been raised by a single mother who competently headed her family without a husband. The involvement of women as helpers of men in conflict resolution resonates so well with the findings of Chanakira (2012) who noted that musha mukadzi (a wife stabilises the home) adage in Zimbabwean Shona culture where the presence of a woman in support of any man was viewed as bringing stability and peace to any family. This is also consistent with the Bible story of Nabal and his wife Abigail recorded in 1 Samuel 25:3 which reads in part “The woman was discerning and beautiful, but the man was harsh and badly behaved; he was a Calebite. Using her prudence, Abigail resolved the conflict between her husband  and  David  the  King  as  stated  in 1 Samuel 25:23-25 which states “When Abigail saw David, she hurried and got down from the donkey and fell before David on her face and bowed to the ground. She fell at his feet and said, “On me alone, my lord, be the guilt. Please let your servant speak in your ears, and hear the words of your servant. Let not my lord regard this worthless fellow, Nabal, for as his name is, so is he. Nabal”. Through her actions, this woman averted a possible annihilation of her whole family and community, a fact that supports the findings that women in this church participated in resolving conflicts through supporting men. The participation of women in leadership, counselling and the Pastoral Care Council, the main disciplinary board of the church which resolves conflicts referred from lower levels of leadership, agrees with the findings of Ntahobari and Ndayiziga (2003) who posited that women in Burundi participated in the Inararibonye (those who have seen many things), a powerful conflict resolution body comprising of women only and equivalent to the male only Bashingantahe (men of integrity who are responsible for settling conflicts at all levels, from the top of the hill to the courts of kings). Furthermore, the findings confirm one of the objectives of Woman Coalition of Zimbabwe that of increasing women’s participation in decision making, (WCoZ, 2015). It should further be noted that the levels of women participation within the church under review point at a confirmation of the positive impact of UN Resolution 1325/2000 which encouraged the involvement of women in conflict resolution. Findings of this study however rejected the notion by Dodo (2013) that women are victims of violence, itself a form of conflict. Most respondents did not view violence as one of the expressions and nature of conflict in this church. The participation of women in resolving church conflicts tallies with the findings of Kurebwa (2013) who noted women’s increased participation in political leadership in Zimbabwe since the advent of the new constitution in 2013. He observed that unlike in the past, women were now very much involved in Council and Parliamentary elections as a result of the enabling environment in the country. The researcher noted that women in the church under review were significantly participating in resolving church conflicts as expressed in the findings.

3.1 Challenges faced by women in resolving church conflicts.

50% of the respondents indicated that male domination was a challenge while 50 disagree. 20% of the respondents indicated that church doctrine segregates were a challenge while 80% disagree. 40% of the respondents indicated the challenge that women don’t support each other while 60% disagree. 82% of the respondents indicated the challenge of women lacking confidence while 18% disagree. 

As highlighted in Table 3 above most respondents viewed women as facing challenges in their attempt to resolve church conflicts. The most significant challenge noted was that women lacked confidence in their conflict resolution practice with male domination coming second as another observed challenge. Due to their involvement in middle leadership, women lacked confidentiality and impartiality.

There was a unanimous agreement by informants that women did face challenges in resolving church conflicts. Challenges identified were lack of impartiality, lack of confidentiality and male domination. In addition, single women faced the challenge of acceptance by their female counterparts who viewed her as a pfambi inotora varume vevamwe vakadzi (a prostitute that snatches other women’s husbands). One of the respondents mentioned that the African patriarchal culture makes women in leadership less acceptable by men and even other women. Kuvengwa, kusateererwa nevamwe varume, kushaya hunyanzvi (Being hated, being disobeyed by some men, and lack of skills / expertise) as some of the challenges women face in their quest to resolve church conflicts. Also, some women faced the challenge of lack of confidence and low self esteem within themselves. Apart from this, women in leadership whose husbands were non members of the Salvation Army or who were unbelievers experienced the challenge of restrictions and lack of support in their practice both as leaders, counsellors and members of the Pastoral Care Council.

            Some respondents disagreed that there was any male domination within the church leadership and cited the recent promotion of the minister’s wife from Captain to Major, a rank that the minister held as a sign of gender equality in the church. However patriarchal style is rooted in African culture which can contribute towards female leadership being out-rightly rejected. Non-believers or non-members of the church do not support or encourage their spouses to be involved and participate in conflict resolution programmes.

Concerning challenges faced by women in resolving church conflicts, Table 3 and the subsequent responses from the focus group discussions and in-depth interviews highlighted that indeed women faced challenges in that area. This agrees with the observation by Chitando (2007) who noted that women faced numerous challenges in their quest for inclusion in conflict resolution processes. As the responses indicate, women face the challenge of male domination to some extent and this is consistent with the view that African societies are heavily patriarchal as further posited by Chitando (2007). These findings are confirmed by similar studies among women aspiring to take up office as councilors and members of parliament in Zimbabwe. Male domination of politics, political parties and the culture of formal political structures was viewed as another factor that hindered women’s political participation. It was noted that, often male-dominated political parties had a male perspective on issues of national importance that disillusioned women, as their perspective was often ignored and not reflected in the politics of their parties. Furthermore, women were usually not elected at the position of power within party structures because of gender biases of male leadership. To compound these challenges it was observed that meetings of councils or parliamentary sessions were often held at odd times, conflicting with women’s domestic responsibilities, (Kurebwa, 2013). While these challenges resonate with Liberal Feminism, critics of the theory have argued that the differences between men and women are greater than Liberal Feminists acknowledge and that these differences should be taken into account to treat men and women fairly. They viewed the patriarchal structure of society as normal and reflecting the very nature and core of the fundamental differences between men and women, (Sample, 2010). The degree and effect of male domination within the Salvation Church Bindura Citadel is not very significant as revealed by survey statistical data, group discussions and interviews. These results showed that the situation in this church was the direct opposite of the findings by Health (2011) who posited that “in conservative religious organizations such as the Apostolic faith churches, males have a greater say on defining activities (biblical living) and the views of women and children may be unrecognized or discounted”. According to the researcher’s observation, although church policy and regulations were supportive of women, they still were susceptible to the universal effects of the patriarchal nature of African communities, churches included.

The challenge of lack of self confidence among women as well their failure to support one another in positions of leadership and conflict resolution actually confirmed the assertion that women are sometimes their own enemies. Kurebwa (2013) observed that while it was undeniable that women bore the brunt of gender inequality because of patriarchy and other factors, it was also true that they were their own detractors. It was established that one of the reasons for low women’s participation in politics was the ‘pull-her down syndrome’ among Zimbabwean women. In that study 50.9% of the ward councillors and 39.8% of rural women indicated this barrier as prevalent. One female MP stressed that during campaigns women were difficult to work with as compared with men. She indicated that women were constantly trying to outdo and out-manoeuvre each other instead of working together. This is further supported by findings by Jenkins (2012) and Holt (2012) who observed a tendency by women failing to support each other in positions of leadership and resenting the advancement of other women in the USA and Britain respectively. The lack of self confidence among women in leadership and conflicts resolution in the church tallies with the findings in a similar study on female political aspirants in Zimbabwe by Kurebwa (2013) who noted that women faced lack of confidence as a barrier to their efficient performance in those positions. This lack of confidence was attributed to a number of factors, among them lack of proper education, lack of adequate information on issues pertaining to how they should represent other women once elected into power.

Lack of basic knowledge and skills in matters related to their new roles as well as lack of support by other women. Kurebwa (2013)’s assertion of self confidence being affected by demographic factors also supports the findings of this study where the majority of participants in the survey (51%) indicated their educational qualifications as Secondary level in itself a limitation when such women would be appointed into positions of church leadership and expected to appreciate contemporary issues when resolving church conflicts. Furthermore, in agreement with this observation, former Kenyan First Lady Lucy Kibaki once said, with reference to capacity building among female political aspirants, “I urge women to work tirelessly for what they want because nothing can be achieved without hard work. Indeed sweat and determination is the surest way of achieving gender equality”, (Muriuri, 2014).

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Cite this Article: Masunungure C and Mbwirire J (2016). Women’s Participation in Resolving Church Conflicts. A Case of the Salvation Army, Bindura Citadel, Zimbabwe. Greener Journal of Social Sciences, 6(2): 038-047, http://doi.org/10.15580/GJSS.2016.2.012616022