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Greener Journal of Social Sciences
Vol. 13(1), pp. 144-150, 2023
ISSN: 2276-7800
Copyright ©2023, Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International.
https://gjournals.org/GJSC
DOI: https://doi.org/10.15580/gjss.2023.1.112024175
Department of Development Studies, Africa International University, Karen, Nairobi, Kenya
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DOI: 10.15580/gjss.2023.1.112024175
John P. Sele
E-mail: seleswop@ gmail.com
Keywords: Climate Change, Agricultural Practices, Farmers, Sustainable Agriculture
Climate change is a chronic global issue that poses significant uncertainty to agricultural systems worldwide. Temperature changes, changes in precipitation patterns, and increased frequency of extreme weather events alter ecosystems and make productive aspects of food security uncertain. According to Bongaarts (2019) and IPCC (2021), changes in temperature and precipitation patterns, combined with an increased frequency of extreme weather events, alter ecosystems and render productive dimensions of food security uncertain. As put by Kihara et al. (2020), rising temperatures could reduce crop yields by hastening plant maturation and consequently shortening the growing seasons. Besides, the water shortage due to inconsistent rainfall is among the main stressors; this is particularly so since rain-fed agriculture, which supports a big fraction of small-scale farmers in developing regions, is especially susceptible. These perturbations require a shift from the conventional mode to more resilient farming strategies, especially in the most vulnerable communities with an inability to adapt.
It is also documented that climate change affects not only crop productivity but even more importantly, in terms of food security and public health, the nutritional quality of food. Myers et al., 2017; Rosenzweig et al., 2020. Growing evidence is available to suggest that increased carbon dioxide could potentially decrease the protein, iron, and zinc contents in staple crops, which further worsens the nutrient deficiencies of populations depending on crops like these. These is just some of the interconnected challenges that underpin the urgent need to understand local-scale climate change impacts on agriculture if food systems sustainability is to be achieved.
Importance of the Study of Local Agricultural Practice
The studies on the impact of climate change on local agricultural practices are important since different regions of the world have variations in climate-related challenges and adaptive capacities. Localized studies have indeed provided instructive insights into local-specific vulnerabilities and adaptive responses, thus framing location-specific strategies that address unique environmental, economic, and social conditions. Hassan et al. (2019); Vermeulen et al. (2018). For instance, areas, where rainfall depends on monsoons, are highly susceptible to rainfall variability, a factor that has necessitated the ring-fencing of novel water management practices together with drought-tolerant crop varieties capable of sustaining productivity. Deb et al. (2019); Rockström et al. (2017).
Such localized studies are also very important in informing policy formulation that reflects farmers’ experiences and traditional knowledge-possibly a better avenue toward more sustainable agricultural solutions. Similar studies, like Wheeler and von Braun (2013), depict how cognizance of the local contexts can bridge the gap between high-level climate policies and on-the-ground practices-fostering resilience at the grassroots level. To this effect, the evaluation of local agricultural response has become a starting point for broader community-based approaches that are engaged in food security issues in the context of changeable climatic conditions (De Pinto et al., 2019; Schlenker & Lobell, 2010).
The general objective of the paper is evaluation of the shift in the local agricultural activity in response to climate change and to establish adaptive measures resorted to by farmers as an antidote against such change. Specific changes being pursued in this research include changing crop types, planting seasons, methods of irrigation, and using climate-resilient crop varieties. Jones et al. (2018); Sloat et al. (2020) In the light of the above, the present paper attempts to present a general overview of the mechanisms that the local farmers are trying to apply to guarantee stability in food production amid climate volatility. Rosenzweig et al. (2020); Harvey et al. (2018). It also identifies the role of both governmental and non-governmental organizations in support of such local efforts through training, financial aid, and access to resilient seeds against climate change.
The unpredictability in weather patterns has caused so much inconvenience to agriculture around the world. Such unpredictability-irregular rainfall, sudden changes of seasons-fouls up the planting schedule, diminishes crop yield, and makes it more vulnerable to infestations and diseases. Research conducted by Asfaw et al. (2021) has emphasized that incidents of non-seasonal weather-for example, storms announced without prior warning and late rainy seasons-make crop growth unpredictable and thus affect food security. Furthermore, in this context, is the shortened period of the growing season, which places farmers at gunpoint in an effort to have their operations changed to continuous seasonal changes; these changes also lead to increased economic and operational stresses. These disparities are intensified by the changes in climate; consequently, traditional farming practices are increasingly strained as farmers face unpredictable forecast conditions and yield reduction. Mbow et al. (2019); FAO (2017). For instance, it can be observed that Sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia have already exhibited enhanced intensity of droughts and floods, which have directly hit the yields of staple crops. Other than the economic stresses this produces, such unpredictability requires that farmers alter their methods of planting and crop varieties as one way of managing risks; this, in turn, changes the face of historic agriculture. Without systemic changes like axing to climate-resilient seeds and adaptation programs supported by the government, these efforts are often ineffective. This is in the view of Rosenzweig et al. (2014).
The most common features accompanying climate change include the rise in temperature, which disproportionately affects crop viability in tropical and subtropical regions. Increased temperatures cause physiological stress to plants during their growth cycle, hence causing a shift in yield quality and quantity, as indicated by Lobell et al. (2011). High temperatures usually affect the phenological stages of crops, which are often associated with reduced flowering, grain filling, and harvest indices. For example, maize and wheat crops, which are staple crops in many regions of Africa and Asia, suffer significantly from yield loss under high-temperature stress.
Higher temperatures can shift the geographical growing regions of crops, which would force crops of wine grapes and apples to cooler areas, further reducing the local food systems and economies. More frequent heat waves continued to remain a prevailing danger, where Tripathi et al. (2016) stated that extended episodes of intense heat make crops prone to infestations and diseases. This has a greater implication for crop viability since there is a subsequent need to develop crop breeding programs that emphasize heat-resistant varieties (Hatfield & Prueger, 2015; Tubiello et al., 2007).
Other major challenges, exacerbated by climate change, are soil degradation and water scarcity. With increased frequency of droughts, the moisture content in the soil becomes low, hence accelerating erosion and nutrient loss from the soil. According to Lal (2004), extreme weather events accelerate soil degradation, consequently reducing arable land and poor crop development. In addition, changes in the pattern of precipitation driven by climate alter recharge rate of groundwater storage, an important factor in water scarcity and, thus a limitation to irrigation in most rural areas (Foley et al., 2011; Rockström et al., 2009).
Water shortage has been said to impact rainfed agriculture in particular, which is considered to be the dominant form of agriculture in less developed areas (Molden et al., 2007). By 2030, water availability will be an even more major challenge for food production in those economies that are already under high water stress according to the FAO estimate. This degradation creates a threat to crop productivity, as long-term challenges involve the maintenance of soil health, which undermines agricultural resilience further.
The farmers increasingly embrace more resistant crops as their response against climate variability. Millet, sorghum varieties, and drought-tolerant varieties of maize crops are becoming more popular among farmers over regions where a high level of climate variability is experienced due to their adaptability. Diversification into more crop varieties could be one of the ways of managing the risks, as diversification reduces dependency on a single crop and enhances the resiliency of agricultural systems to various external shocks. Organizations such as the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research have initiated programs aimed at breeding crop variety adaptations to indeterminate climatic scenarios.
The literature also indicates that crop diversification enhances food security and raises farmer incomes by diversifying marketable products. According to Thornton et al., 2014, and Campbell et al., 2011, this approach, besides enhancing resilience against climate-induced stressors, maintains biodiversity and hence plays an essential role in stabilizing ecosystems to ensure sustainability in agricultural practices. This was also supported by Altieri, 1999.
Improved irrigation techniques are part of the important struggle against the increased water stress brought about by climate change. This involves precision agriculture, drip, and sprinkler systems. It minimizes waste while optimizing yield. Indeed, research studies have shown that improved irrigation management can lessen the negative impacts of drought, especially in those areas where water is a critical limiting factor in crop production.
Supplementing the scanty water resources by technological interventions, water conservation practices such as rainwater harvesting and restoration of traditional water storage systems have lately become more common in the area. These techniques offer farmers friendly help to take the crops through their dry spells. Most of these techniques are recommended either by local or international agencies like the United Nations Development Programme.
All these are compounded by the need to adopt climate-based integrated pest management strategies, as rising temperatures, coupled with increased humidity, are very conducive to the proliferation of pests and diseases. Indeed, studies have indicated that efficient IPM practices use a judicious blend of biological, cultural, and chemical control methods to reduce pest prevalence and minimize environmental impacts. The adoption of IPM is specifically vital in those areas where increased pest resistance is being developed through climate-induced changes.
By adopting varieties resistant to pests, crop rotation, and intercropping practices, for instance, the use of chemical pesticides, which are costly and hazardous to the environment, is reduced. Parry et al. (2004); Tilman et al. (2001) Global initiatives have encouraged IPM practices through training and input support for farmers on approaches toward the sustainable management of pests, thus heightening their resilience to adverse climate events. UNDP (2019); Scherr & McNeely (2008).
Case Study 1: Sub-Saharan Africa
Climate change has resulted in more erratic rainfall, longer droughts, and higher temperatures overall, ultimately depressing agricultural productivity within the Sub-Saharan African region. For instance, studies carried out in the region have revealed that unpredictable rain interferes with the precise planting calendar and hence is leading to instability of yields and food insecurity as well. Most especially pronounced for staple crops such as maize and millet, these are very sensitive to the slightest changes in temperature. Other important factors include increasing soil degradation-the latter partly a factor of climate-related causes-which has grown worse and leads to declining soil fertility and crop yields in a cycle. In countries like Kenya and Tanzania, for instance, farmers face both water scarcity and increased pest invasions, which continue to exacerbate vulnerabilities in the country. (Kassie et al., 2015; Rippke et al., 2016).
Case Study 2: Southeast Asia
Southeast Asia is host to some of the most important rice production systems and equally confronts significant climate impacts. Sea-level rise may cause salinization of arable lands in countries like Vietnam and Thailand and could, therefore, threaten rice fields that are typically depended on for regional food security. Smajgl et al., 2015; Thoai et al., 2018. According to Kulp and Strauss (2019), there is evidence that portions of the Mekong Delta can become submerged as early as 2050, while displacing millions of people and destroying agriculture. The high variability of rainfall further affected the predictive capability of farmers regarding favorable planting dates, one of the most important conditions that ensure maximum yield. Flooding and typhoons further exacerbated these issues, leading to the destruction of crops and financial losses among communities whose livelihood depends on farming. These have been truly evident in studies by Dasgupta et al. (2014) and Adger et al. (2018).
Case Study 3: Latin America
Glacial retreat in general has accelerated with climate change in the Andean and Amazon regions, although the impact on agriculture is indirect through its impacts on water availability. This is a very critical problem in farming communities dependent on glacial meltwater for irrigation at high altitudes. The Amazon, in turn, has suffered from increased deforestation and is prone to rainfall shifts that reduce soil moisture, impacting productivity. Such effects have been discussed by Nobre et al. 2016; Marengo et al., 2018. The most affected are poor peasants who cannot afford progressive methods of irrigation. Baca et al., 2014; Eakin et al., 2014.
The United Nations Development Programme has rolled out various initiatives to enable communities whose livelihood relies highly on agriculture to adapt to climate impacts. The Adaptation Fund under the UNDP finances projects that enhance the resilience of communities through climate-smart agricultural practices. For example, UNDP-supported projects have equipped farmers in Malawi and Zimbabwe with the skills to grow drought-resistant crops and adopt water-saving irrigation techniques. Nyasimi et al., 2014; Chingwe et al., 2018. The UNDP has supported weather forecasting system development that is more informative, allowing farmers to make decisions based on climate information. Kadi et al. 2011; Liniger et al., 2017.
The Tony Elumelu Foundation has been involved in several economic empowerment programs across Africa, including the support of climate-resilient agricultural entrepreneurship. By funding agricultural startups, the foundation has been able to help local innovators develop solutions such as low-cost irrigation systems and organic pesticides that reduce dependence on imported agricultural inputs. It also trains beneficiaries through its African Entrepreneurship Programme on sustainable farming methods that reduce climatic risks while improving food security. These are as documented by Ayinde et al. (2020) and Adeola et al. (2021).
Several regional bodies are also into climate adaptation in agriculture. For instance, the African Climate Smart Alliance champions sustainable farming practices across the continent to bolster its resilience to climate shocks. Similarly, the Asia-Pacific Climate Change Adaptation Forum has been an important player in the development of knowledge-sharing platforms on climate-resilient agriculture. These initiatives play an instrumental role in the development of adaptive capacities in regions with low economic endowments.
Financial constraints are considered one of the major barriers to adaptation in agriculture, especially for poor countries where farmers find the adoption of climate-resilient technologies difficult or expensive. Inadequate access to credit and insurance adds to these problems, making smallholder farmers particularly vulnerable to climate shocks. While various international funding mechanisms are in place, financing gaps still remain, tending to dissuade widespread adaptation measures.
In fact, one of the biggest barriers to adaptation involves several gaps in climate science and adaptive practices. Most small-scale farmers have limited access to information dealing with climate and training in sustainable practice, thus limiting responses toward environmental changes. These situations are exacerbated by the complete lack of extension services that might have been available in the rural areas to support the application of climate-smart methods among farmers.
In agriculture, policy and infrastructure also limit climate adaptation. The lack of adequate rural infrastructure in the way of roads and storage is lowering market access for farmers, hence making them susceptible to economic shocks caused by climate change. Such is reiterated by Byerlee et al., 2020; Porter et al., 2014. Further, policies dealing with land use and resource management in a sustainable manner are almost absent or poorly enforced, hence creating regulatory gaps that limit adaptation efforts. This is in line with the Bamako Declaration of 2019 and Cohn et al., 2017.
This analysis proves that climate change has clearly shown concretely tangible and region-specific impacts on local agriculture, from crop yield reduction to water scarcity challenges. Various case studies from Sub-Saharan Africa, Southeast Asia, and Latin America reflect the vulnerability of agriculture as accentuated by climate variability. Besides, international efforts through UNDP and the Tony Elumelu Foundation have given substantial support to adaptation at an extremely slow pace due to financial and infrastructural barriers (Liniger et al., 2017; Vermeulen et al., 2012).
Implications for Future Agricultural Policy and Practice
Future agricultural policies must be geared toward developing climate-resilient infrastructure, increasing access to finance for smallholder farmers, and providing effortless access to climate information among other resources. FAO, 2021; Nyasimi et al., 2014. The government and organizations have to coordinate in mitigating both the short-term and long-term effects that climate change has and is still bound to have on agriculture, building resilience from the local to the global levels. Thornton et al., 2014; Porter et al., 2014.
Such adaptive strategies in a region call for further research, testing the functionality of several emerging climate-smart technologies in varied agricultural contexts. In addition, the social and economic consequences of climate adaptation for rural communities are conducive to useful insights for policy formulation.
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John Sele Philip is a scholar with a rich academic background, currently pursuing a Master’s degree in Development Studies specializing in the Theology of Development. He holds a bachelor’s degree in Theology and a minor in Development Studies from Africa International University (AIU), Nairobi. His academic and professional journey reflects a deep commitment to integrating theology with development principles as he authored the blog, Theology Of Development (https://theologydev.com). He hails from Jos, Plateau State, Nigeria.
Sele is a lecturer of Development Studies at Africa International University (https://aiu.ac.ke). His work in academia and development is informed by years of leadership experience, including his tenure as the International Students Representative at AIU and the Chief Executive Officer of Content Creators Hub (https://mycreatorshub.org).
His scholarly work is underpinned by a commitment to community engagement, practical theology, governance and politics, resource mobilization, and social justice, with a focus on empowering marginalized communities, particularly in Jos, Plateau State, Nigeria. His current research interests include governance, social inclusion, and the theology of development, particularly emphasising their practical implications in the African context.
Read more of his articles from ORCID: https://orcid.org/0009-0001-9637-5071
2. Faith Nyakerario
Faith Nyakerario is an experienced administrator and personal assistant, currently serving as a Graduate Assistant at Africa International University. She is pursuing a master’s degree in development studies, specializing in Peace and Conflict Transformation, and is deeply passionate about addressing global challenges through sustainable development.
In addition to her academic pursuits, Faith is particularly passionate about climate change and its impact on communities. She is actively engaged in community engagement efforts, seeking to raise awareness and promote sustainable practices that contribute to environmental protection and climate resilience.
With her experience in administration and academic support, Faith has developed a strong foundation in organizing and managing educational and developmental projects. Her commitment to peace, conflict transformation, and climate change underscores her broader goal of contributing to positive social and environmental change.
Through her work and academic endeavors, Faith is dedicated to fostering peaceful, sustainable solutions to the pressing challenges facing communities in Africa and beyond.
3. Cynthia Wanjiku
Cynthia Wanjiku is a determined development practitioner from Kenya who is dedicated to using academic knowledge and workable solutions to address pressing global issues. Her work, which is informed by her excellent academic background, addresses some of the most important global challenges of our day, such as social justice, sustainable development, poverty reduction, and the complex effects of globalization. Cynthia is passionate about these subjects because she thinks research may have a beneficial impact on policy and encourage change.
Cynthia who is now studying abroad has gained more experiences which have helped her to get a broader awareness of the issues associated with development on both a local and global scale. Her exposure to various development methods and cultural contexts has enhanced her approach to problem-solving and strengthened her resolve to close the gap between theory and practice.
Cynthia’s ultimate objective is to make a significant contribution to the scholarly conversation while providing useful, applicable insights for real-world situations. She hopes to have a significant effect on the area of development by promoting policies that advance justice, sustainability, and fairness on a worldwide basis. She does this by fusing rigorous research with a practical perspective.
Sele, JP; Nyakerario, F; Wanjiku, C (2023). Assessing the Impact of Climate Change on Local Agricultural Practices. Greener Journal of Social Sciences, 13(1): 144-150, https://doi.org/10.15580/gjss.2023.1.112024175
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