The Philosophical Proofs of the Existence of God: It’s Implication for Christian Faith and Practice

Return to Issue Full text - PDF Full text - HTM Full text - EPUB Audio Version https://www.gjournals.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/102524154-Ndzi.mp3 Or highlight the text below to listen. Greener Journal of Social Sciences Vol. 14(2), pp. 234-248, 2024 ISSN: 2276-7800 Copyright ©2024, Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International. https://gjournals.org/GJSC DOI: https://doi.org/10.15580/gjss.2024.2.102524154 Article's title & author The Philosophical Proofs of the Existence of God: It’s Implication for Christian Faith and Practice Ndzi Leonard * Africa International University, Karen, Nairobi, Kenya. ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT Article No.: 102524155 Full text: PDF, PHP, HTML, EPUB, MP3 DOI: 10.15580/gjss.2024.2.102524154 The philosophical proof of the existence of God has been a central topic of debate throughout history, with various arguments put forth to support the existence of a higher being. This argument, such as the ontological, cosmological, and teleological arguments, aims to demonstrate that the existence of God can be logically inferred from the nature of the universe and human experience. The implications of these philosophical proofs for Christian faith and practice are profound. For Christians, the philosophical proof of God's existence can strengthen their faith by providing rational justification for their beliefs. It can also deepen their understanding of God's nature and attributes, leading to a more profound relationship with the divine. Additionally, these proofs can guide moral and ethical decision-making, as they provide a foundation for understanding the source of objective moral and ethical values. The philosophical proof of God's existence can inspire believers to live out their faith more authentically and passionately. It can also foster a sense of awe and wonder at the complexity and beauty of the universe, leading to a deeper appreciation of God's creation. Overall, the philosophical proof of the existence of God has the potential to enrich and enliven Christian faith and practice, offering believers a firm intellectual foundation for their spiritual journey. Accepted: 30/10/2024 Published: 06/11/2024 *Corresponding Author Leonard Ndzi E-mail: ndzigracebaptist@ gmail.com Keywords: Philosophical Proofs, Existence of God, Implication, Christian Faith, and Practice Introduction Philosophical proofs of God's existence have been part of the theological fate for ages. Logical reasoning, by which the arguments stand, and looking at the world empirically aim to create a reasonable foundation for believing in divine existence. The theology and philosophy of both Western and Eastern religions contain these types of evidence, which are part of the old intellectual background. Their traditional role is to anchor religious discourse and assist worshipers in determining what is true and what is not. The mysteries in these arguments revolve around issues of metaphysics; specifically, they focus on exploring reality, causes, morality, and order. They trigger doubt in an order in which life is ruled by something that controls the universe and humanity—what is the essence of life and meaning? From the Platonic chit-chats in antiquity to the theological treatises of the noble medieval humanists and contemporary inquiries into theology, these theological proofs have not only made a journey from the annals of intellectual history but also have left a solid footprint on the landscape of theology. The importance of these affirmations stands beyond abstract thinking; they hold considerable weight in Christian theology, everyday practices, and life. What believers derive spiritually from grappling with these arguments is intellectual stimulation and higher faith through deepening faith experience. Through those proofs, the Christians can familiarise themselves with them and, therefore, enter a journey of comprehension and confirmation of his existence. They also provide the Christian community with a more reliable education in God. The intellectual authority of these proofs or sayings of ancient theologians is the cornerstone of religion or faith's standing, for they lay the foundation for it. In today's era of doubt and uncertainty, the arguments from philosophy can stand as a mighty rampart against the deterioration of faith, offering continued logical responses to questions of philosophical import and intellectual inquiries. Through these resources, believers are given the necessary weapons to exude their faith in concrete terms and solidify it beyond philosophical criticism; thus, a much more profound Christian identity is created. In addition, these revelations have become a sort of driving force toward theological reflections and growth in Christian communities. The believers are taken into these secret parts of creation's structure as they unfold along the cosmic, purpose, being, and moral evidence. The inquirers will be amazed to learn about the relationship between the Creator and creation. Through this exploration, Christians reason in theology, which engenders a pious and fresh faith that is both philosophically challenging and spiritually enhancing. In addition, they offer us the possibility to talk and share a joint discussion across diverse religious traditions. Firstly, despite their foundation in the Christian theological tradition, these arguments serve as a starting point for discussion, potentially facilitating the discovery of a middle ground between extremes, where all religious and philosophical beliefs converge. They are the way to meet between different faiths and have a mutual understanding, where representatives of all religions can discuss things fruitfully and cooperate. Given the resonating truths of these verifications, it is undeniable that Christians have not lost their footing in both the theological world and the intellectual quest. Christians are always looking for a way to synthesize the complexities of their faith and reason in a world that seems to be constantly changing. Therefore, although seemingly confusing and contradictory, these philosophical arguments become the guiding lights illuminating the road to understanding the heart of God and His will. In this chapter, we will intertwine the figurative pathways that comprise the cosmological, teleological, ontological, and moral arguments in their innermost core. We dive deeper into this discussion. By conducting this quest, therefore, may we be granted new ways to understand the riddles of having and pulling ever closer to the divine essence that gives life to us? Cosmological Argument The Argument from Cosmology demonstrates the most recognized philosophical proof for the validity of God in human philosophical debates. Established based on the ideas of cause and contingency, this proof asserts the existence of the archetypal incorporeal First Cause, commonly thought to be the Almighty. Let us probe into the multifaceted aspects of the cosmological argument rooted in philosophy and then proceed to the theological significance of the Christian faith and the events of life. A. Explanation of the Argument The cosmological argument, the basis of philosophical and theological interrogation, is a way of establishing the existence of a first mover or a necessary being. The general term for that being is God. It has, as a foundation, the principles of causality, meaning that everything that happens or exists has a reason for why it occurs or exists. We develop this idea through a two-step logical progression, beginning with affirming the Principle of Causality, which states that everything exists, whether we know it or not. And this is how the principle of sufficient reason—that every single event or phenomenon that exists or happens returns with its reason or explanation—evolves. This introduces us to the general picture of contingency, which means all the objects and events are independent and necessitate other elements for their existence. We must find a cause or explanation for the universe's existence, as its conveniences are fundamental to its existence. The argument from Cosmology begins to challenge the necessity of the First Cause, thereby forever linking its failure to an infinite regress of causes—a never-ending chain of contingent entities perpetuating one another. Therefore, there should be a primary cause or the necessary being that initiates the sequence of causality and the ultimate explanation for the things that have come to be by accident, hence, being contingent. According to this proposition, the primary cause is considered self-sufficient and causeless, bypassing the flaws of the transient being. This is the reason, then, why the cosmological argument arrives at the culmination of absolute God as the ultimate cause. People perceive God as all-powerful, all-knowing, and eternal, as the ultimate source of all things, from whom (only) all that is, but not entirely Him, originates. It is in the summa theologica of the writings of St. Thomas Aquinas that the Cosmological Argument is well expounded. Aquinas presents his version of the argument through his 5 Ways, with the first way being the motion case or simply the cosmological argument, which can show how the universe had a beginning. As the Aquinas sees the world as a whole of events, one thing triggers another. Discovering the chain of causes, he concludes that the ultimate cause of motion and change must be some unmoved mover, which becomes God for him. Though it has deep roots in history, the Cosmological Argument is no less relevant in modern philosophical discussions. It keeps evolving and adapting. The philosophical gap is often addressed by philosophers in various formulations and refutations, which has also led to the advancement of the argumentation from the Kalam Cosmological Argument, which argues for a transcendent cause why because of the finite nature of the past and so on, to modal and hierarchical variants, philosophers keep debating them, trying to understand both the nature and implications of the argument. The ultimate conclusion states that the argument of cosmology proposes a persuading reason for the existence of God, in which the principles of causality and contingency are taken into deeper consideration. Through a detailed examination of the relationships between causes and their effect, the argument presents a view of the whole universe's origin and basis. By giving rise to deep philosophical inquiries and reflection on the nature of existence and the existence of God, the Cosmological Argument provides the individual an opportunity to think about some profound philosophical questions. B. Indications for Christian Faith Understanding of God as the First Cause The first on the list of arguments is the cosmological argument, the broad background for the Christians to reason out God as the First Mover of the Universe becomes possible. God represents Godhead by happenstance but appears to be the starting point where the chain of causality hinges on its explanation. In this way, Christians proclaim God as the one being who exists outside the space-time continuum, which is the highest power and control over everything. Of all the tenets that remind us of the cause, it just reflects His sovereignty and omnipotence in Christian theology. For believers, Jesus is not simply an external supplement; He is the underlying source of everything in the physical universe. While the proponents of the First Cause hold out for God as the ultimate cause, stating the outright mandate this God has claims upon the universe, there is a more intuitively appealing aspect to it: not only does He hold power to start and govern the start of creation but He is God. Above all, this theological view highlights that God is an origination fee of all causes—the undisputable entity that "self-exists" and stands apart from outside influences for its presence state. The Christian doctrine conceives that God is an entity that is a living and unchanging being that cannot be eliminated at any point and is independent of any possibility. With this theological depiction, man echoes the First Cause's philosophical notion; it points to the fact that God, in the last instance, created the universe and ruled over all of the creation. By viewing God as the First Cause, the Christians establish that He was the root and the base of the entire causative system in the cosmos since He was the one who originated and upheld all the lines meant for existence. This theological understanding will keep believers' faith in God, defeat all the barriers, and show them standing before God without any temporal-spatial boundaries. On the other hand, the practitioners of this philosophy are believed to have developed a deep sense of wonder and awe due to this fact, which prompts them to consider the immensity and majesty of the nature of God. When Christians recognize God's initial and all-encompassing role in the universe, they are prompted to meditate on the finer points of creation and reflect on how it dictates God's mighty creative act. After all, being assisted in comprehending the Divine First Cause is meant to intensify believers' theological knowledge and love for His divinity. Here, the song resonates with these tenets of Christian belief, assuring God's dominance, omnipotence, and transcendence. Furthermore, it leaves God as the ultimate Creator and the source of all existence, even though believers are encouraged to acknowledge this relationship through profound reverence and a surpassing sense of wonder. 2. Relationship between God and the Created Universe According to the Cosmological Argument, the first question of origin is one of the questions that play a critical role in the interlinked universe of God and the world. The argument starts with God being the First Cause to highlight that the universe or existence depends on its Creator. Christianity has convinced its followers that nothing preceded the universe but God's creative process, who created it ex nihilo (out of nothing). Such self-awareness creates a feeling of respect and a humble attitude towards God as the universal architect who devised a plan for creating this universe, abiding by his divine plan. Likewise, the cosmological argument underpins the universe's necessity in that it alludes to its dependence on an external agent as the reason why it exists. A Christian sees in this necessity an expression of Divine Providence and governance concerning the whole of creation exercised by the mind and knowledge of God. Christian theology asserts that God keeps the whole universe in existence every moment, providing the natural laws and maintaining the order observed in the cosmos, in regularity, and every inch of space. Consequently, the Cosmological Argument demands believers gaze at the mysteriousness of God as he simultaneously is with man and is transcendent. Such a searching process will lead to the recognition of the intelligence and power of God over this created world. On top of it, the Cosmological Argument offers Christians an opportunity to take a broad look at creation. This entity is regarded as the ontological image mirroring the divine attributes of God. From the galaxies' grandness to the complexities of the atomic-level details, the overall creation is perceived as evidence of God's divine powers and divine characteristics. This belief creates an environment of care and taking responsibility for nature. Being so, the believers are prompted to look after creation and maintain its integrity as a reflection of good's greatness. Essentially, the Cosmological Argument helps Christians solve the God/universe relationship on a philosophical level and beautifies the relationship between God and the created reality. As believers have to confront and struggle with the consequences of this argument, their theological understanding is optimized, and they are inspired to have a more profound and unique, as well as deep, understanding of the divine mysteries that nourish their faith. Moreover, we have extra philosophical proofs to analyze their Christian theology and practice impact in the following paragraphs. Teleological Argument The Argument from Design, or the Bible-in-a-Book, is without question in the list of philosophical arguments that support the assertion of God's existence. This argument is based on the observation that the order, complexity, and constituency observed in the universe imply the existence of an unmistakable designer named God. In this sector, we will look at a substantially critical topic, the teleological argument, and sublimate it to Christian faith and practice, following its underlying concept and implication. A. Explanation of the Argument from Design The teleological argument, which stems partly from the early philosophical explorations of the cosmos and has survived unscathed throughout millennia, is a constant theme in theology and philosophy. We can recognize its origin from the thoughts of ancient philosophers like Plato and Aristotle. It was officially acknowledged in medieval theology and philosophy centers like Thomas Aquinas. In other words, the teleological argument holds that nothing can adequately account for the beautiful order, fantastic complexity, and purposeful design observed in the universe that can be exposed by accident or natural processes. Instead, these pointers point to the rise of an insightful mastermind who created the universe using a great design. The designer (one of the most noteworthy characters) is often called 'God'; this Creator character is considered the all-transcendent one who charges everything with meaning and purpose. The typical rebuttal would be pursued logically by the statement that the very nature of the world is evidence of order and complexity. For example, in the manner celestial bodies might be in motion, the living structures presenting themselves might all indicate the orderliness within the universe, which is something even random chance is not enough of a factor to determine by itself. According to this observation, the conclusion is that God is the designer behind this ordered thinking and sophisticated scheming that seems unlikely to have been created by nature or chance. Rather than this, they are the ones who are 'designing' what purposefully revolutionizes the complexity of the cosmos. This key aspect lies at the foundation of the teleological argument in that the intelligent designer is God, the supreme figure of wisdom, abounds in creativity and serves as the unifying factor of all beings. The evidence proves God's existence in that a design in nature affirms His role as the architect and the mighty maintainer of creation. Current verdicts on the teleological argument resort to data from different fields of knowledge, especially biology (and biochemistry), cosmology, and information theory, for a better endorsement of the existence of design in the universe. Ideas like irreducible complexity, exquisite fine-tuning, and specified complexity are cited as evidence for a profoundly improbable delicate balance and the emergence of the most sophisticated arrangement of structures inside our living systems. This proves the supremacy of subtle divine design over the possible natural cause of the situation by providing additional evidence in favor of the proven existence of a supernatural force responsible for the creation of the universe. In the final examination, the teleological argument is to be seen as a solid manifestation of the greatness of God because it expands on the apparent order, complexity, and meaning in the whole universe, which proves that a wise designer created the universe. Ultimately, each individual investigating the cosmic design will ascribe their human faith in God, more explicitly at the beginning of creation, endow the cosmos with meaning, and serve concrete purposes. B. Implications for Christian Faith Recognition of God as an Intelligent Designer: The Teleological Argument, for Christians, is proof of the existence of the divine being and the steward who made and set things in order. They believe that the natural world is the "thousand faces" and "demand" of the One Almighty God and that through it, they can perceive His infinite wisdom, creativity, and loving providence. The flower's intricate beauty, the angle precision of a snowflake, and the baffling level of complexity in a DNA molecule all serve as visible forms of the divine wisdom that originated them. Such acknowledgment that God is won by them a superior intelligence design develops an awesome in believers' awareness towards the natural environment. The Christians consider creation a work of a wise and creative Being instead of seeing it as a mere consequence of randomness or an act of natural processes. All parts of the universe, from giant galaxies to the smallest particles of an atom, show depth in design and purposeful efficiency, which science proves to us is because it all happened by the engineer of the universe – GOD. As a result, God is also understood to be a wise and powerful designer, which stimulates believers to think through the infinite correlation between the human mind and God's mind on top of His magnificent creative power. At this moment, when they stare at the world in wonder and amazement, Christians are instantly touched by the realization of the umpteenth capability of their Almighty God. For them, this is the source of rest their souls demand and motivate, that being the knowledge that the God who fashioned the heavens and the Earth also is the one who holds them in the palm of his hand, and hence, deliberately guiding them towards divine purposes. Moreover, the concept of an intelligent creator, that of God, displays the interacting and harmonious essence of the creation. The faithful venerate the mysterious interlocking relationship of organisms and their classes that make life bearable in the universe, seeing it as a vivid testimony of an ordered Divinity and God's divine Providence. All the ways that range from the ecosystem's balancing to the inner workings of a biological system prove the impeccable hand of the designer through design and planning. Secondly, recognizing the intelligent designer of the world generates a sense of stewardship and a devotion to responsibility towards the natural system. The faithful are urged to care for and guard the environment because, in their relationship with nature, there is a hidden gift that is given to them by God. Among them, the type of Christianity based on a deep respect for the creation of the natural world and a love for the environment will have a respect for the divine intelligence and creativity behind the creation of the world. Last but not least, the teleological argument gives Christians an impressive argument backed by logic that proves God's intelligence through his role as a designer. By noticing the existence of plans in nature, believers's spirits get moved to admire the skill and invention of the Creator. Such an understanding of natural elements at large is, in a way, the factual basis for a healthy and respectful relationship with the environment. Moreover, it inspires a genuine appreciation and reverence for creation, which makes people embrace their roles as stewards and treat the marvelous designs of nature with the dignity they deserve. 2. Appreciation for the Order and Complexity in the Universe as Evidence of Divine Creation The teleological argument is the most reliable proof based on the existence of complexity and organization in the universe, which deepens Christians' belief in God. Instead of seeing nature as an outcome of blind fortuity or necessity, religious people conclude it as an affirmation of purposeful, creative intention, just as God planned. To summarize the teleological argument, not only do we value the harmonious relationship between physical laws ruling the universe, but its elegance is also supremely admirable. Unlike philosophical systems that perceive the universe as a cosmic accident and life on Earth as a purely random process, Christians regard all phenomena, from the precise mathematical laws of planetary orbits to the delicacy of the forces that sustain life on Earth, as akin to God's divine wisdom and providential care. This reading of God's intent leads the believers to admire God's pleasing and harmonious creation and develop a mood of gratitude and conception of the same towards God or the Creator. In addition, Christians realize the intricacy of ecological systems and biodiversity as manifestations of Godly creations. Numerous species, each fully adapted to their environment, prove God's uniqueness in creation. Concerning the range from the microscopic world to, etc., the faithful can unfold intricate details of God's wisdom in every being. Beyond appreciating biodiversity among Christians, this notion underscores the intrinsic value of all life in creation and the interconnectedness of all entities, inspiring these Christians to cherish and safeguard nature as stewards of God's creation. The teleological argument urges faithful ones to consider what grand or delivery scheme is hidden in the universe. The same principles define the cosmos of the Christians as the universe is of a man: everything has its part, and everything interacts towards the harmonious whole. Just as the creation of galaxies gave us insight into creation, life evolution on Earth told the story of God's divine plan. This attitude encourages them to reflect on the enormity and beauty of God's divine providence, which leads them to trust Him fully, knowing that He takes away all the imperfections of creation. On the other hand, the teleological argument directs people to be good administrators of the universe. Christians must tend to and respect the natural environment. The terrestrial honor of maintaining and protecting the environment is established by worshippers, considering that the all-knowing Creator has placed an inner value, purpose, and glory within all of His creations. This is the essence of ecological ethics, which holds that the Creator is the Lord of all beings on Earth, and humans are the stewards and caretakers of creation on behalf of the one who made us all. The teleological argument can help us better understand God's masterful work since, as the Creator, we are the design of the whole universe. In observing the hierarchical and intricate structures of the universe, people are being caused to enter a more intensive appreciation of God's creating might and his following care. Thus, by observing the grandeur and harmoniousness of nature, they can stop and wonder at the beauty and harmony of creation, the very purpose and order of the universe, and acknowledge that they are God's trustees of the creation. Ontological Argument Perhaps the most famous of the theistic proofs and the most intriguing and controversial has been Anselm of Canterbury, a medieval theologian and philosopher, which is known as the Ontological Argument. Based on the investigation into the being known as existence and "the greatest conceivable being," which is the concept of God, this argument aims at making the audience believe that if God exists, then His existence should be logical. In this paragraph, we will come up with the very peculiarities of Anselm's Ontological Argument, go into its philosophical roots, and then scrutinize the effects of Christianity on faith and practice. A. Explanation of Anselm's Ontological Argument Anselm's Ontological Argument, described in "Proslogion," is presented in an attempt to rationally prove God's existence based on mental or logical analysis only. The argument follows a specific procedure, starting with the definition of God as "that which nothing greater than it can be conceived" being given. This means that God is the most perfect being conceivable, and perhaps there are no inherent superior entities in all of nature. Anselm calls on his readers to consider the idea of God as the image of perfection, not only as perfect but also as perfect, because he is omnipotent, omniscient, and morally sound. This way of argumentation can be traced, as he claims that God can't be merely an idea but also possess life in the mind and reality. However, God is not just a phenomenon of the mind but also exists in reality; therefore, He becomes the highest conceivable for us. Speaking on Anselm's behalf, the abovementioned idea could be stated in the following way: Being that exists in both the mind and reality is "more excellent" than only "thinking things." The proposition that the mode of existence affirms the property of greatness is a fundamental point in Anselm's Argument. Kant argues that it would be absurd if we were to think that God does not exist; this would mean that we accept something more significant than God—an apparent logical error. Anselm gives a notion of God as existence, which can be conceived as the most significant being, and thus, His existence is needed by His very definition. This prediction by Anselm implies that God cannot exist in a way that causes it to become non-existent or later on. Analyzing Anselum's ontological argument seems essential, but throughout history, it has stimulated divergent opinions and debates among many scholars and theologians. Critics have objected to the truthful way existence equates with perfection because perfection may not necessarily be a must-have attribute of excellence. Nevertheless, the ability to conceive of and the dependable unreasonedness of the argument have also come under fire. Moreover, ontological arguments are still under discussion, and they always draw the interest of people and encourage philosophers to investigate issues of God and being. The everlasting impact of its insights on understanding that reality is relative to our mind and sense has sparked a primary debate between philosophers and theologians. Some people find it suggestive, but the argument doesn't deter others, so the status quo related to the ontological argument from the philosophical discourse is feasible. Even experienced thinkers are intricately involved in various issues regarding existence and God himself. Anselm's Ontological Argument becomes a center of intellectual discussion and reflection.Top of Form B. Implications for Christian Faith Understanding of God as the Greatest Conceivable Being Anselm's proof from the Ontological Argument would deepen the understanding of the Christian faith in that God is the being no more remarkable than He could be conceived. This concept establishes God's superiority and transcendence over all created entities. In turn, God is affirmed as the Creator and ultimate standard of all the universe. Unlike any angels that are part of creation, God is the Infinite Being, not limited by any imperfections on his side, and perfect per se in every way. As for the Christian understanding of God as the concept that is the most perfect or the most excellent conceivable being, this can only mean His perfection and omnipotence. God is not conditioned by human knowledge, multiple-parameter generalizations, or the possibility of revelations from outside of mere worldly limitations. Through the ontological Argument, Anselm is contemplating adding emphasis to the magnificence and even the grandeur of God; therefore, he is confident that God can be Himself. This theological perspective is very philosophical, and it requires believers to view an absolute power with attributes that are depicted as big as infinite since there is no limit. It is not necessary to attribute it to the element of good. God's wisdom encompasses all imaginable knowledge and wisdom, extending beyond what humans can comprehend. God's plan is revealed continuously and is an outcome of this factor. His power is boundless and immeasurable, and he can surrender to His will all under sovereign authority. Notice the goodness that is all around us. God's love and kindness for humanity are reflected in every aspect of creation. Further, the hypothesis of God as the greatest possible being provokes believers to worship Him with fear and wonder. The theological doctrine of acknowledging God's unique position of strength entails a humble recognition that everyone has their shortcomings and that God should be the only source of reliance. They find peace knowing that God's immense love and strength actively engage with them, guiding and caring for them in every moment of uncertainty and ecstasy. Beyond that, this understanding of God as the most exalted being prompts people to humble themselves before Him by worshipping or paying homage to Him through expressive devotion. As the fulfillment leaves the ground for the Pilote, bound for the boundless, He can only be all church with all church and all Earth. With the disappointment of the Mundane, he views people who aren't any good filled up with no wonder and no gratitude for the abundance of His love and grace. Through this, they are brought to a very high level of intimacy with God, where they can see God as the owner of their joy, the source of their hope, and the savior they depend on. Lastly, Anselm's Ontological Argument gives a grand conception of God, supreme over all imaginable things. This idea supports the teaching that only God has transcendence and supremacy over everything in the universe, stressing his holiness and power. Believers who reckon with its various implications realize the wisdom of the Kalam argument, thus appreciating even more the grandeur and luster of God, who is the basis of all things. 2. Exploration of the Nature of Existence and its Relationship to God: Anselm's Ontological Argument spurs up to metaphysics and inter-relationships of existence and God among Christians, who then contemplate more about the nature of being. Anselm insists that being the most perfect existence is a necessary attribute of divine nature. This concept forces believers to think more deeply about what it means to be and its connections to God's being. For Christians, the very essence of existence is believed to derive from their understanding of God and the assumption that He is the one who gives us life by His divine will. The Argument of Anselm draws the contemplation of believers to the paradox of the beginning and that which is above the universe. Through a search for meaning, believers acquire a far-reaching comprehension of the divine as one who is totally above everything and, at the same time, is inseparably united with the flow of events in creation. Because of this, they understand themselves not as a product of a meaningless coincidence or accident but as a reflection of God's purpose and his caring, which protects and guides. Moreover, Anselm's Ontological Argument is essential for theology on divine revelation and human knowledge. Christians are confident that what God says about Himself can be discovered in various ways, for example, through Scripture, tradition, and reason. Participating in the philosophical reasoning of the ontological argument is part of their search for God's traces in time and space, as well as his hand of skill woven through every corner of creation. They realize that even though human reason has its limitations, through this, man can aspire higher to achieve more knowledge of God and His characteristics. Anselmian Christians see the endless philosophical questions intertwined with the zeal to know the God through whom the course of the universe is specific. These doubts could be about the meaning of life or the reason for existence. Through this process, believers fully understand the depth and complexity of God's creative work and learn that the world's creation and history are continuous indications of God's presence. Not only that, but in The Ontological Argument, Christians are stimulated to deliberate on an issue that deals with the existence of God. God alone is the supreme intellect in the world and timeless concerning the limitations of the limitations of the human mind, which cannot apprehend infinity or even comprehend the existence of the divine. God does not depend on anything else besides Him or externalities beyond Himself to exist. He is necessary and exists independently, but not because of something outside him. This grasping of the facts implies profound respect for God's mystery, even of majesty, thus validating God's supremacy and total power over all creations. Anselm's Ontological Argument, in sum, optimizes a brilliant architecture for fan Christians to believe in God as the most excellent impossible being of all and subsequently encourages theological ideas on the correct conception of existence and its coordination with the divine. Through trying to understand this argument, the believers enhance their comprehension of divinity as the most mysterious and superior Creator of all creation. They also strengthen their faith in the sovereignty and omnipotence of the Creator and master of everything. Christian believers, in finding deeper meaning through enduring discovery and reflection, learn additionally about the nature of God and the aid humanity provides in the world. Moral Argument As its name implies, the Moral Argument constitutes a philosophical quest to ascertain the fact of Divinity (God) on the rails of reality and objective moral principles. On the other hand, the categorical imperative creates an argument that the existing values can only make sense if there is an external, rule-governing factor that is perceived to be God. This paragraph covers the aspect known as the moral argument, explores its philosophical basis, and sheds light on its role as a prism for Christian belief and practice. A. Explanation of the Moral Argument The premise of the moral argument repeatedly states that "objective moral truths" and "principles" are the basis of human behavior, and this is the building block of the argument. It starts by saying that the nature of morality is the objective kind of morality—an unvarying value that embodies justice, kindness, and love, which are considered to be truths regardless of what humans think or the norms that govern societies. These moral influences are considered universal standards for any man, irrespective of religion, ethnicity, or background. The inquiry further interrogates whether the origin and grounding of these objective moral principles are based on the laws of nature or derived from the human system of perception. If the codes of morality are not supposed to be personal desires but authentic sources from which knowledge is taken, then the universal truth must be credited. This is right there when such worlds were created purposefully to fulfill the role for which they were created. Therefore, one begins to recognize who is the highest law-giver for everything and who also maintains the order of the universe. God being the divine ruling moral authority is implied, and as such, the standard morality is seen to be supreme. Simply put, the ultimate conception of God's morality is the basis of moral values, with the commands providing the objective truths of moral goodness. Within this context, God's nature is tightly knit to the moral fabric of the universe, which normalizes moral judgments and creates moral obligations for the divine principles. In essence, the moral argument posits that the reality of objective moral values points towards the existence of a divine moral authority that establishes and upholds the moral order of the universe. The moral theory of divine commandments has been developed and persistently protected in history by scholars and theologians, using philosophy and theology as the basic disciplines. The argument about morality has been added by great philosophers such as Immanuel Kant, C.S. Lewis, and William Lane Craig, who, through their writings, have been able to refine and proffer differentiated defenses while countering the objections raised. The critics have called into question the substance of moral value and the supposed premise that a supernatural creator or ethic is the reason for all moral truths. However, the supporters of the moral argument believe that it is perfectly plausible and crucial in explaining all objective moral realities if we accept that a deity has a positive connotation or provides the ultimate standard of goodness. Possibly, the traditional moral argument will be seen as one of the instruments used to investigate the basis of morale as well as the consequences for the "eternal existence" of God. It stimulates contemplation on validating metaphysical issues in ethics and fosters discussions and exploration of the origins of moral values.Top of Form The moral argument, a crucial part of philosophical discourse, leads to significant challenges for Christianity as it helps believers comprehend morals and see their connection to God more clearly. This latter argument starts with the idea that there are absolute objective values and that they empirically necessitate an objective moral law-giver, which does so within a Christian context. It consequently offers Christians fast views and modes of action regarding moral judgments within their communities. God becomes the reference point of immovable moral norms for Christians, by which they turn to ethical reflection, emulate god-like deeds, and open the path to worshipping Him in transmutation. The moral argument focuses on God as the absolute first principle from which objective moral values derive. To Christians, moral truths are not matters of taste from different cultures (coming from different customs) but from what is of God's being and character. God's character, qualified by perfect goodness, justice, and love, is the criterion for expressing all moral evaluations. This view equips adherents with an everlasting moral ground, solid as the rock. It moves them beyond the fluctuation of moral relativism and anchors morality as a timeless quality of God. His establishment as the source of objective moral values supports His sovereignty and authority concerning human behavior. Christians, however, believe that these norms do not in any way originate and bind us because of their relative positioning or something similar. Still, they are there because of the intelligence and holiness of the Creator God. Following this, believers must relinquish their compliance and get into God's law standards, acknowledging Him as the only opinion market about morality. This responsibility leads to a consciousness of moral accountability, which consequently makes believers want to establish conduct by the stipulations of God. In addition, such an argument compels Christians to speculate on ethical issues in their society. Believers have been assigned the responsibility of mindfully probing into the ethical repercussions of faith for issues and participating in a dialogue to develop social harmonies. Ethical discourse is of crucial importance for Christians today. Through that discourse, Christians can articulate biblical principles to cope with modern moral issues, such as deprivation, social inequality, and environmental stewardship, from a holistic Christian standpoint. In addition, the moral argument asserts Christians' need for ethical thinking and behavior. The followers are then expected to be virtuous by having the character traits of godliness, such as compassion, justice, and integrity in their actions and relationships. Through this kind of ethical life, Christians witness the transformative power of love and justice of God in the world, as this helps to further God's kingdom and the not-so-subtle improvement of the state of humanity. Further, the moral argument testifies to the importance of moral enlightenment and evolution within Christian groups. Believers require moral virtues and divine ethical principles to cultivate perfection and achieve a deep understanding of the divine nature. The Christian ideology follows the moral imperatives for ethical behaviors, the path of salvation on which redemption is ensured, and the creation of a community of righteousness integrated by integrity, compassion, and honesty. Conclusively, the moral argument supplies Christendom with a firm foundation to comprehend the nature of morals and the importance of God regarding them. Through ascribing God to the Ultimate Moral Authority, the adherents are hence compelled to participate in ethical exchanges, abide by the Divine ethical standards, and acquire virtues that reflect the morality and nature of God. The desire of Christians to observe God's ethics of living, interact with one another in the virtue of moral discussion, and bring about their moral formation is a sign that they are conformed to the mold of God's kingdom and power. Strengthening Faith through Philosophical Proofs Providing a platform for philosophical arguments to pierce the theological foundation has been a pivotal aspect of the intellectual interaction of the Christian tradition. They represent a cognitive justification for belief, which tackles two of the most fundamental concerns: existence and godhood. In the next section, we will delve into the myriad of functions that philosophical proofs play in fortifying faith, providing a way for engaging with doubt and skepticism, and generating interfaith dialogue and mutual understanding. A. Role of these Proofs in Strengthening Believers' Convictions Philosophical proof reinforces conviction and serviceableness in faith moments when individuals are in times of thought and skepticism. This latter sense of assurance gives believers a feeling that the theology of God is by the staked reasons' rationality. The role of any philosophical proofs is that they may be a serene harbor when uncertainty arises, offering comfort amidst the chaos of doubt. Using logical arguments and evidence, they let believers have an intellect arsenal, which is the critical tool that allows them to fight the sense of doubt and enhance their faith, a firm base for convincing them entirely. Apart from these arguments, they provide the faithful with the basis on which they can build their faith on solid ground, helping them articulate and defend their beliefs with perfection and clarity. As the believer follows these proofs, the same logic becomes deeply ingrained in their mind. The theological depth is a byproduct of internalizing these proofs and confidence in Christian doctrine. Evidence suggests that, by paying close attention to the arguments in favor of God's existence, believers attain that their faith is not despotic praise without candid searching and inquiry. This will last as deep thinking develops a greater understanding of the intricacies of their beliefs, making them more robust in the face of intellectual challenges. Therefore, the community of believers strengthens one's certainty as they engage with intellectual questions and face challenges. Enlisting arguments and exploring the subtlety of theological perspective results in a more intense perception of religious knowledge. This degree of understanding encourages the believer in Christian doctrine to commit more robustly to faith because he or she finds Christian doctrine coherent and elaborate. Providing a remarkable experience of spiritual quests, seekers have more substantial mastery of the truth and a greater conviction in their faith. It eventually happens that philosophical proofs are meaningful in strengthening faith among believers as they confirm them in their doubting moments, offer a rational foundation for faith, and help promote intellectual maturity. These, in turn, are centers for learning and enlightenment and act as guiding signals for believers back to the first principles of faith based on reasoning and proofs. Top of Form B. Engagement with Doubt and Skepticism within the Christian Community While a mere theoretical exercise may seem cold and lifeless, philosophical proofs fulfill a double role in the realm of faith, namely the somewhat weak yet reassuring position they provide for the believers as they reflect on their beliefs. Instead of repressing misgivings and skepticism, religious apologetics stimulates faith in more steep thinkers and tackles challenging rheological issues, propelling spiritual growth and maturity on the spiritual path. Influenced by persuasive arguments defining the dogma, Christians go on the path of critical questioning, eventually building up their faith on rational grounds. This approach redefines the role of religion, moving it from passive acceptance to active liberation through the wanton scrutiny, probing, and comprehensive exploration of the foundations of religious convictions. Through this toughening, believer's intellectual bases are strengthened, allowing them to express and defend their faith with clarity and confidence. Furthermore, the opportunity for religious persons to encounter philosophical postulates produces a platform to tackle doubts and uncertainties that may grow in them spiritually. Belief in God goes beyond adherence to dogmas or simply accepting miracles; it enables them to meet their doubts on the ground with possible solutions through reasoned inquiries and reflection. Through this process, doubts are put as a challenge to finding more clarity and moving believers to a place of higher faith with a greater understanding. Eventually, a dialogue ensues between the believers as they indulge in the complexities of philosophy, which includes an analysis of many profound theological issues and a depth of philosophical inquiry. The difference between these students focusing on their faith and getting closer to the heart of their beliefs is why this kind of trip serves intellectual development and gives them inner peace of mind. With a greater sense of knowing, the confident believer comes to a persuasive faith and a solid conviction that his beliefs are genuine. Philosophical proofs can be expressed in the sense that philosophical proofs are like the ingredients that aid intellectual and spiritual growth within the Christian community. These arguments portray religion as convincing and proven to believers by helping them resolve their doubts and build upon their intellectual development instead of depending on external sources. Nonbelievers regard doubt as the greatest hindrance to belief. Still, believers accept it as an indicator that points to a better comprehension of the faith and a more profound and healthier faith. Along with their participation in the philosophical discourse, people of faith prompt their development and can enrich their spiritual lives. Thus, they can be actively involved in the Christian community. C. Promotion of Interfaith Dialogue and Understanding through Philosophical Inquiry Absorbing philosophical theorems benefits religious people and facilitates discussions and the exchange of information throughout different religions. The promotion of interfaith dialogue and cooperation is a task that may seemingly become easy for them to carry out by the common philosophical inquiries that they study. Philosophical proofs serve as a unifying ground for discourse, surpassing religious barriers by unveiling universal issues concerning historical research, ethical norms, and the realms of existence. A wide-ranging community of thinkers shares their views on the big questions that have troubled the minds of people of different cultures and religions of all ages, thus creating an environment for serious reflection and mutual understanding. Instead of solely having to abide by their religious views, believers participate in dialogues that enhance their perspectives and respect the vastness of religious ideals. Also, intellectual wisdom encourages cooperation among the many strains of religious faith. In contrast to world religions that base their claims on logic and reason, Hinduism and Buddhism differ significantly because of several factors like life's goal, path, and purpose. By highlighting common principles and queries that rise above their traditions, believers standing for different claims bond together, creating an atmosphere hospitable to cooperation and mutual respect. It is the shared purpose that makes the effort of many faithful of different religions to harmonize themselves, which reinforces unity and harmony mainly as it connects people and cultures. Also, the evidence of the philosophical kind arouses intellectual pursuits and dialogue among believers and nonbelievers. Through articulating logically thought-out reasons for God's existence and exploring philosophical issues concerning reality, believers offer others the opportunity for dialogical engagement and contemplation of the multilayers of thought underlying their faith in a deity. The dialogue between believers and nonbelievers through the interchange of ideas results in sharing knowledge and understanding among people, which bridges the gap or builds a platform where intellectual people acquire more understanding and knowledge. In brief, philosophical proofs play an interactive role in dialogue, collaboration, and mutual consideration for non-Christians and Christians. Participants approach common philosophical questions (theological boundaries) jointly. This includes language discussion, which is priceless. One grows one's understanding of the traditions and deepens one's appreciation of the diversity of thought, which is exciting and challenging. The people of faith do this by establishing the cooperation needed and creating the possibility for intellectual exchange so that they can conveniently showcase the things that are peaceful, understandable, and uniting in society.Top of Form Conclusion Through the course of history, like a channel, philosophical proofs have empowered the theology of Christianity and influenced Christian practice. These reasons provide a solid basis for trust that there is a God and fill the believers with a better comprehension of His essence. The original argument is still pertinent to current theological dialogue and scholarship despite the different philosophical styles being adopted. A. Recap of the Importance of Philosophical Proofs for Christian Faith and Practice Spiritual proofs, in addition to theology, build Christians's faith by giving believers a reason to believe in God and thus understand God's nature. These five proofs, whether cosmological, teleological, ontological, or moral, are just a few of the compelling reasons proffered for the belief in a transcendent Creator as well as for the confirmation of the fact that there indeed exist objective and immutable moral values. Through the Cosmological Argument, believers are invited to ponder that God is the first cause of the world's origin, consequently confirming that the latter holds power and strength. Telescope Reed emphasizes human leadership for the presence of order and complexity that, to a certain extent, suggests someone is in charge. Anselm's Ontological Argument explains God's concept as the superlatively conceivable being; its foundation, the believer's conviction, develops from such traits as perfection, omnipotence, and more, God's nature. The moral argument centers on the source of objective moral values in God, suggesting that authority lies with God just as it directs believers to ethical reflection and moral principles. Believers would be able to strengthen their faith, and faith leads to a powerful one that helps them understand God's nature and where He stands in creation. These arguments thus provide comfort and reassurance in the notions of imminent certainty and unending doubt, saying that believers need to think through, empathize, and sincerely confess their doubts and wrestle with theological complexity. In addition, they evoke ethics and moral involvement with the followers of Christ, thus allowing people to have a deeper understanding of what it means "to live love, just, and compassionately.". B. Reflection on the Ongoing Relevance of these Arguments in Theological Discourse and Intellectual Engagement Although philosophical concepts from different times and tribal communities are changing, and the cultural context varies, these arguments are still relevant and prove their worth in conversation and ongoing intellectual engagement. The method philosophical proofs use to support their claims of God's existence may alter due to discoveries and insights; however, the core principles of their philosophy remain relevant for causing us to consider the eternal problems of God's existence and nature. In this era, where many people's attitude is skepticism, which is more prone to secularism now, it is the only philosophy that gives the reason to believe without issues because it is better than the world at atheism and materialism. By considering such arguments, Christians may express their faith even more compellingly. The dialogue between reason and faith is made fuller by their contribution. Additionally, the validity of these arguments extended way beyond the religious sphere of Christianity to all other faiths and indeed facilitated interfaith understanding. The philosophical proofs serve as the universal tool for the uncomfortable standing on dialogue and discourse between the different wisdom traditions, encouraging spiritual unity and blending in tackling the shared perennial philosophical puzzles. To sum up, philosophical proofs are far from just decorations of Christian theology; they, on the contrary, give depth to believers' perceptions of God and strengthen the foundations on which Christians' ethics are based. Even though their views have changed over time, there is no doubt that the validity of these arguments remains the same, and it can be stated that they are essential to theological discourse and intellectual engagement. 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About The Author: Leonard Ndzi Leonard Ndzi is a passionate pastor and scholar dedicated to biblical preaching, church planting, and discipleship. He is the President and Founder of Action Disciples for Christ (2004-2016), a group devoted to supporting struggling churches and fostering genuine discipleship within local communities. Leonard also planted and led Grace Baptist Church Kakar (2005-2014) and Kongwang Baptist Church Awing (2017), emphasizing sound biblical teaching and spiritual growth. In addition to his pastoral work, Leonard served as the International Student Coordinator at Africa International University (AIU) in 2022, providing guidance and support to international students. He holds a Master of Arts in Biblical Studies (2022) and a Bachelor of Arts in Biblical Studies (2015) from AIU and Cameroon Baptist Theological Seminary, respectively. He is a PhD candidate. He is pursuing his PhD to become a Systematic and Biblical Theology professor. Leonard has published several scholarly articles addressing critical issues in African evangelical Christianity, including technological advancement, marriage, and the role of the Holy Spirit. He also teaches theology courses at Africa International University (AIU), blending academic excellence with his dedication to spiritual development. He is a member of the Elders Scot at Karen Community Church (KCC), Nairobi Kenya. His work reflects a deep commitment to faith, leadership, and advancing the Kingdom of God. Cite this Article: Ndzi, L (2024). The Philosophical Proofs of the Existence of God: It’s Implication for Christian Faith and Practice. Greener Journal of Social Sciences, 14(2): 234-248, https://doi.org/10.15580/gjss.2024.2.102524154. Junguo, Z. H. A. N. G. "A Critical Examination of Anselm’s Ontological Argument." Frontiers of Philosophy in China 12, no. 1 (2017): 137-150. ↑ De Guzman, Eugene Victoriano. "A Review Of Contemporary Approaches To Anselm's Ontological Argument." Prajñā Vihāra: Journal of Philosophy and Religion 24, no. 2 (2023): 51-51. ↑ Himma, Kenneth Einar. "Ontological Arguments for God's Existence." Ontological Arguments for the Existence of God,” Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy (James Fieser, ed.) (2015). ↑ Myers, Tyrone Amos, and Marianne Seigmund. "Anselm’s Ontological Argument and Its Critics." (2020). ↑ Stifter, Laura. "The Ontological Argument. Anselm vs. Descartes." Analele Universității din București–Seria Filosofie 65, no. 2 (2016): 91-105. ↑ Crichton, Cristina. "The Existence of God and the Essence of Truth: San Anselmo's Ontological Argument in Light of Heidegger." Revista de Filosofía UCSC 17, no. 1 (2018): 31-61. ↑ Levin, Jeff. "Human flourishing and population health: Meaning, measurement, and implications." Perspectives in Biology and Medicine 63, no. 3 (2020): 401-419. ↑ Erasmus, Jacobus. The Kalām cosmological argument: A reassessment. Cham, Switzerland: Springer International Publishing, 2018. ↑ Linford, Dan. "The Kalām cosmological argument meets the mentaculus." The British Journal for the Philosophy of Science (2023). ↑ Ventureyra, Scott. "The Cosmological Argument & the place of Contestation in Philosophical Discourse: From Plato & Aristotle to Contemporary Debates." Maritain Studies/Études maritainiennes 32 (2016): 51-71. ↑ Loke, Andrew. The teleological and Kalam cosmological arguments revisited. Springer Nature, 2022. ↑ Kragh, Helge. "Cosmology and religion." Encyclopedia of the History of Science 4, no. 1 (2020). ↑ Hildebrand, Tyler, and Thomas Metcalf. "The nomological argument for the existence of God." Noûs 56, no. 2 (2022): 443-472. ↑ Almeida, Michael. Cosmological Arguments. Cambridge University Press, 2018. ↑ Muhtaroglu, Nazif. "Al-bāqillānī's cosmological argument from agency." Arabic Sciences and Philosophy 26, no. 2 (2016): 271-289. ↑ Ibid Ventureyra 19 ↑ Ibid Erasmus 130 ↑ Ibid 444 ↑ Moritz, Joshua M. "How Absence Makes Things Grow: Absential Metaphysics and the Teleodynamics of God as Love." Theology and Science 14, no. 4 (2016): 449-455. ↑ Schellenberg, John L. The hiddenness argument: Philosophy's new challenge to belief in God. Oxford University Press, USA, 2015. ↑ Page, Ben. "The dispositionalist deity: How God creates laws and why theists should care." Zygon® 50, no. 1 (2015): 113-137. ↑ Bishop, John. "What theological explanation could and could not be." (2018). ↑ Ogunnaike, Oludamini. "African philosophy reconsidered: Africa, religion, race, and philosophy." Journal of Africana Religions 5, no. 2 (2017): 181-216. ↑ Burman, Thomas E. "The Four Seas of Medieval Mediterranean Intellectual History." Interfaith Relationships and Perceptions of the Other in the Medieval Mediterranean: Essays in Memory of Olivia Remie Constable (2021): 15-47. ↑ Heidarzadegan, Nazila. "The Discourse Of Transcendentalism And Mysticism: Poetry From East And West." Interstudia (Revista Centrului Interdisciplinar de Studiu al Formelor Discursive Contemporane Interstud) 19 (2016): 21-31. ↑ Sajaroh, Wiwi Siti, and Sarah Hajar Mahmudah. "The Role of Philosophical Mysticism in Islamic Indigenization in Java." (2020). ↑ Zaleha, Bernard Daley, and Andrew Szasz. "Why conservative Christians don’t believe in climate change." Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 71, no. 5 (2015): 19-30. ↑ Mcleod, Elizabeth, and Martin Palmer. "Why conservation needs religion." Coastal Management 43, no. 3 (2015): 238-252. ↑ Mehta, Neil. "Knowledge and other norms for assertion, action, and belief: A teleological account." Philosophy and Phenomenological Research 93, no. 3 (2016): 681-705. ↑ Mossio, Matteo, and Leonardo Bich. "What makes biological organisation teleological?." Synthese 194, no. 4 (2017): 1089-1114. ↑ Kerimov, Khafiz. "The Teleological Argument in Kant’s Groundwork for the Metaphysics of Morals." Kant-Studien 112, no. 1 (2021): 51-77. ↑ Stefan, Ionut. "Arguments for and against human cloning in terms of teleological and deontological theories." Revista Romana de Bioetica 13, no. 3 (2015). ↑ Máhrik, Tibor, Dinara Giniyatullovna Vasbieva, Roman Králik, and Peter Kondrla. "Salvation as the teleological vector in Kierkegaard’s Practice in Christianity." European Journal of Science and Theology 16, no. 4 (2020): 43-52. ↑ Eder, Günther, and Esther Ramharter. "Formal reconstructions of St. Anselm’s ontological argument." Synthese 192 (2015): 2795-2825. ↑ Ibid.,51 ↑ Oppenheimer, Paul E., and Edward N. Zalta. "On Anselm’s Ontological Argument in Proslogion II." History of Philosophy & Logical Analysis 25, no. 2 (2021): 327-351. ↑ Hämäläinen, Nora. "The ontological argument." In The Murdochian Mind, pp. 209-222. Routledge, 2022. ↑ Vallicella, William F. "Does god exist because he ought to exist." Ontology of theistic beliefs (2018): 205-212. ↑ Mullen, Peter. "The Ontological Argument Revisited." Philosophy Now 152 (2022): 8-8. ↑ Nnaeme, Chibuikem C. "How can we know the existence of God: Anselm and Aquinas?." Verbum et Ecclesia 36, no. 1 (2015): 1-6. ↑ Moreira, Felipe GA. "Anselm, Intuition and God’s Existence." Philosophia 50, no. 2 (2022): 619-637. ↑ Ibid Crichton 40 ↑ Williams, Thomas. "Anselm’s Proslogion." Topoi 35, no. 2 (2016): 613-616. ↑ Millican, Peter. "1 Anselm." Ontological Arguments (2018): 19. ↑ Megill, Jason. "The Ontological Argument." Contemporary Arguments in Natural Theology: God and Rational Belief (2021): 51. ↑ Silvestre, Ricardo. "On The Logical Formalization of Ansem's Ontological Argument." (2015). ↑ Baggett, David, and Jerry L. Walls. God and cosmos: Moral truth and human meaning. Oxford University Press, 2016. ↑ Wainwright, William J. Religion and morality. Routledge, 2017. ↑ Peterson, Michael L. God and evil: An introduction to the issues. Routledge, 2018. ↑ Yilmaz, Onurcan, and Hasan G. Bahçekapili. "Without God, everything is permitted? 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