INTRODUCTION
Feed represents
70-85% of the total cost of production of meat and table eggs and as such is
the most expensive input in animal production. The limited supply of raw
materials for the feed industry has resulted in a continuous increase in the
cost of production. It has thus become necessary to explore other feed
ingredients and additives that are locally available and relatively cheap.
Kaolin is a plastic material largely containing the clay mineral classified as
phyllosilicate. Due to its adsorption qualities and the absence of primary
toxicity (Anonymous, 1998), the use of kaolin is considered to be a simple and
effective prevention of the effects exerted by a number of toxic materials.
Kaolin based medicaments are commonly used for the treatment of digestive
disorders in humans (Heimann, 1984; Kasi et al; 1995; Knezevich, 1998;
Gebesh et al; 1999). When Kaolin is added to animal diets, it reduces
resorption of harmful toxins present in the feed because it binds them firmly
and selectively. A number of studies on kaolin to decontaminate entero-toxins
which cause diarrhea (Doming, Daroust and Minekus, 2004), aflatoxins (Schell et al., Abdel-Wahhab et al.1999; Phillips 1999), plant metabolites (alkaloids,
tannins), pathogenic microorganisms, metals (Hassen et al. 2003; Katsumata et al.,
2003), and poisons (Knezevich and Tadic,
1994) are documented. Kaolin added to farm animal diets was found to influence
the efficiency and quality of meat (Savory,1984;
Sakata, 1986; Kolacz et al.,2005). However, information on the effects of this
feed additive on the blood chemistry and haematological profiles of animals is
scarce. It has been noted that significant changes in the blood and serum
parameters can be used to assess both the pathological and nutritional status
of individual animals (Owen et al. 2008; Owen et al. 2009; Owen
and Amakiri, 2011). It has also been established that
certain haemotological factors can be associated with
certain production traits. For example, it has been established that high
packed cell volume (PCV) and high haemoglobin content
(Hb) are associated with high feed conversion
efficiency (Mitruka and Rawnsely,1997) while high
percentage of white blood cells, especially lymphocytes, are associated with
the ability of the chicken to perform well under stressful conditions.
Consequently, the effects of any feed ingredient or additive on the blood
profile and serum biochemistry of the chicken are of immense assistance in
deciding whether or not such an additive
should be used in poultry feed. It is envisaged that the outcome of this study
will be used to make decision as to whether or not kaolin can be used in
poultry feed with high margin of safety.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The research was
conducted at the poultry section of the Rivers State University of Science and
Technology; Teaching and Research Farm in Port Harcourt, Southern Nigeria. A
total of 120 Hubbard strain boilers having mean weight of 60g were used in a
study that lasted for 56 days. The birds were housed in a deep litter with wood
shavings as bedding material. Before the arrival of the birds, the pens were
cleaned, washed, and disinfected. The birds were divided into four groups of 30
birds each. Each treatment group was further subdivided into three replicates
of 10 birds each in a completely randomized design (CRD). The four bird groups
were assigned to 1) basal diet only (control), 2) basal diet + 10g kaolin per
kg bodyweight, 3) basal diet + 20 g kg-1, and 4) basal diet + 30 g
kg-1. The proprietary feed used in this study at both the starter
and finisher phases were of Top feed with protein contents of 22% for starter
and 18% for finisher. They contained 2800 ME kcal-1 kg-1
and 2900ME/kcal/kg respectively.
Feed and water were
offered ad libitum. Routine management practice and vaccinations were
maintained while the study lasted. At the end of the study, 3 birds per
treatment were randomly selected and bled by severing the jugular vein. The
first set of blood samples were collected into bottles containing EDTA for haematological
evaluation, while another set of blood samples were collected without
anticoagulant, for blood chemistry evaluation. Haematological parameters and
blood chemistry were determined as described by Dacie and Lewis (1991)
The blood
parameters determined includes haemoglobin (Hb), red blood cell (RBC), packed
cell volume (PCV), white blood cell (WBC), and WBC differentials. From these
parameters, the mean corpuscular volume (MCV), mean corpuscular Haemoglobin
(MCH) and mean corpuscular Haemoglobin concentration (MCHC) were calculated
from the method of Schalm, Jain and Carrol (1975). All the data obtained were subjected to
analysis of variance (ANOVA) according to Steel and Torrie (1980) and means
were partitioned where necessary using Duncans New Multiple Range Test (DNMRT)
as outlined by Obi (1990).
RESULTS AND
DISCUSSION
The effect of feeding
Kaolin on the various haematological parameters is presented in Table 1.
The values for Ca were 56mg/L-1, 82mg/L-1, 94mg/L-1
and 100mg/L-1 for 0g/kg, 10g/kg, 20g/kg and 30g/kg levels of
inclusion respectively. Similar trend was observed in the phosphorus (P) levels
where highest value of 56mg/L-1
was recorded in the 30g/leg level of kaolin inclusion with the least value
(32.5mg/L-1) observed in the control group.
On haematology, the results obtained in all the parameters did
not show any definite trend. The Hb and PCV value in
the 20g/kg consistently had the highest value. The function of Hb is in the transportation of 02 and C02.
A decrease therefore in the level of Hb in the blood
is indicative of poor nutrition including dietary deficiency of Cu, Fe, amino
acids and vitamins (Frandson,1981). Also Maxwell et
al., (1990) showed that haemoglobin level tends
to decrease with low protein intake, parasitic infection and liver damage.
Leucocytes
(WBC) differ from other blood cells in that they perform important functions
outside the vascular compactment. Their primary
function appears to be to defend the body against foreign bodies, achieved by
phagocytosis and antibody production (Robbins and Angel, 1976). Considering the
fact that the animals depend on leucocytes for protection against foreign
bodies, like virus, bacteria and foreign tissues, attempt to characterize these
blood cells become necessary. Haematological values
were within the ranges reported in literature (Nwonu et
al. 1996). This result is also consistent with the report of Coates et
al., (1963) that feed additive supplementation could improve the response
of birds to several stressors and disease condition. Although most of the data
obtained on haematology in this study were
significantly different (p<0.05), the values were still within the normal
ranges (Cambell, 1975). This finding is further
supported by the
work Mmerole (2008). This implies that any of the
test diets could be selected as far as haematological
parameters are concerned
Calcium (Ca) is required by the chicken in greater amount than any
of the other minerals (Tion and Njoku,
2009). Cromwell (1982) suggested that approximately 99% of Ca
is located in the skeleton where it complexes with phosphates to give rigidity
to bones. The remaining <1% is widely distributed throughout the organs and
tissues with relatively large amounts found in blood. Simkis
(1967) reported that the blood cells are almost devoid of Ca
but the serum and plasma contain 9-12 mg/dl in most species when not in
reproductive activity. The findings of the present report
agrees with the assertion.
There were
significant difference between the Ca levels of the
treated groups and the control. It was observed that as the level of dietary
Kaolin inclusion in the diet increases, the Ca level
also increased with a concomitant increase in P level. The serum Ca and P levels are vital to the life of the animal and the
effect of their deficiency or imbalance may first be shown as skeletal
aberrations
CONCLUSION
There is indication
from this study that Kaolin as feed additive in broiler production did not
distort any of the haematological parameters measured
rather it improved the serum Ca and P of the birds.
It is therefore concluded that dietary kaolin could be added to broiler
chickens’ diet without any detrimental effect to the physiological indices
evaluated.
REFERENCES
1.
Abdel – wahhab,
M.A.; Nada, S.A. and Amra, H.A (1999). Effect of aluminosilicates and bentonite on
aflatoxin-induced developmental toxicity in rat. Journal
of Applied Toxicology, 19:199-204.
2.
Anonymous (1998). Kaolin clay tolerance
requirement exemption 2/98. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA),
Federal Register February 25, 63 (37):9427-9430.
3.
Cambell, J.W.
(1975). Avian haematology and cytology 2nd
Ed. Towa state University Press pp.3-5.
4.
Coates, M.E.R; Fullar
G.I and Harrison, M. (1963). A comparism of chickens
in the Gustafson germ free apparatus and in a conventional environment with and
without dietary supplementation of penicillin. Brit. J. Nutrition 17:
141-150
5.
Cromwell, G.L. (1982). Calcium and phosphorus
in swines nutrition. Proc. Georgia Nutri. Conf. pp. 129
6.
Dacie, J. and
S.M Lewis (1991). Practical haematology, 8th
Edn. Longman group Ltd. London pp. 21-68.
7.
Doming, N.J.; Daroust,
E. and Minekus, M (2004). Adaptive function of soil
consumption an in-vitro study modelling the human
stomach and small intestine. The Journal of Experimental
Biology, 207: 319-324.
8.
Frandson, R.D.
(1981). Anatomy and physiology of farm animals.
Lea fabinger publishers. Philadelphia. Isted.
9.
Gebesh, V.V.; Ianchenko V.I. and Sukhor, I.U.A.
(1999). Kaopectate in the combined treatment of
patients with intestinal infection (in Russia). Likarska
sprava, 3: 140- 142.
10.
Hassen, A.; Jamoussi, F.; Saidi, N.; Mabrouki, Z. and Fakhfakh, E.
(2003). Microbial and copper adsorption by smectitic
clay- an experimental study. Environmental Technology, 24: 1117- 1127.
11.
Heimann, G. (1984). Pharmacotherapy of acute infant enteritis (in
German). Monatsschrift Kinderheilkunde 132: 303-305.
12.
Kasi, M., P. Kausar, R.
Naz, and L.C. Miller. (1995). Treatment of diarrhoea in
infants by medical doctors in Balochistian,Pakistan.
Journal Diarrheal Diseases Research 13:236-241.
13.
Katsumata, H.; Kaneco,
S.; Inomata, K; Itoh
K.; Funasaka, E.; Masuyama
K.; Suzuki, T. and Ohta, K. (2003). Removal of heavy
metals in rinsing wastewater from plating factory by adsorption with economical viable materials. Journal
of Environmental Management, 69:187- 191.
14.
Knezevich D.L. and Tadic, V. (1994). Decontamination with clay or alcholate of pigs per-cutanacously
poisoned with VX and soman (in Croatian) . Vojnosanitetski Pregled, 5: 488-491.
15.
Knezevich, M.
(1998). Geophagy as a therapeutic mediator of endoparasitsm in a free- ranging group of rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta). American Journal of Primatology, 44:71-82
16.
Kolacz, R.; Korniewicz,
A.; Dobranski, Z; Korniewicz, D. and Trziszka, T. (2005). Effects of
dietary halloisyte on the performance and meat
quality of pigs (In Polish). Medycyna Weterynaryjna, 61: 1266-1269.
17.
Maxwell, M.H.; Robertson, G.W.; Spence, S and
McCorquodule, C.C. (1990). Ad-libitum fed
domestic red blood characteristics. British Poultry Science, 31: 407-413
18.
Mitruka, H.M. and
Rawnsley, S.K (1997). Chemical, Biochemical and haematological reference in normal experimental animal. Mason,
N.Y pp. 287 -380.
19.
Mmerole, F.U.C
(2008). The effect of replacing groundnut cake with rubber seed meal on haematology and serological profiles of broilers. Int Journal of Poultry Science, 7 (6):
622-624.
20.
Nwonu, P.C; Ubosi, C.O and Mohammed, T.G. (1996). Effects of Furaprol, Embazin and Terramycin on some blood components of Norman chicken in
the sudano- Sahelian zone of Nigeria. Annuals of Bornu
11/12: 264-269. University of maiduguri
press.
21.
Obi, I.U. (1990). Statistical methods of
detecting differences between treatment means 2nd ed. Snap press, Enugu-Nigeria.
22.
Owen, O.J.; Alawa,
J.P.; Wekhe, S.N.; Aniebo,
A.O.; Ngodigha, E.M. and Amakiri,
A.O. (2008). Haematological and biochemical responses
of weaner rabbits fed diets containing graded levels
of poultry litter. International . Journal
of Biotechnology and Biochemistry. Vol. 4 No. 1: 33 – 37.
23.
Owen, O.J.; Amakiri,
A.O. and E.M. Ngodigha (2009) Physiological responses
of wearer rabbits fed graded levels of poultry litter. International Journal
of Poultry Science, 8(2): 183-187.
24.
Owen, O.J. and A.O Amakiri
(2011). Serological and haematological profile of
broiler finishers fed graded levels of bitter leaf (Vernonia
amygdalina) Meal. Advances in Agricultural
Biotechnology, 1: 77- 81.
25.
Phillips, T.D. (1999). Dietary clay in the
chemoprevention of aflatoxin-induced disease. Toxicological
sciences, 52: 118-128.
26.
Robbins, S.I. and Angel, M. (1976). Basic
pathology, 2nd Ed. W. B. Sanders Co. pp. 31-68.
27.
Sakata, T. (1986). Effects of indigestible
dietary bulk and short chain fatty
acids on the tissue weight and epithelial cell proliferation
rate of the digestive tract in rats. Journal of Nutritional Science and vitaminology, 32: 355-362.
28.
Savory, C.J. (1984). Regulation of food
intake by brown Leghorn Cockerels in response
to dietary dilution with Kaolin. British Poultry Science, 25: 253-258.
29.
Schalm, D.M.;
N.C. Jain and E.J. Carrol (1975) Veterinary Haematology (Ed) Lea and Fabinger.
Phildelphia, pp 256-262.
30.
Schell, T.C.; Lindemann,
M.D; Kornegay E.T. and Blodgett, D.J. (1993). Effects
of feeding aflatoxin-contaminated diets with and
without clay to weanling and growing pigs on performance, liver function and
mineral metabolism. Journal of Animal Science, 71: 1209 -1218.
31.
Simkis, K.
(1967). Calcium in reproductive physiology. Chancer press Ltd. Great
Britain.
32.
Steel, R.G.D. and J.H.Torrie
(1980). Principles and procedures of statistics. 2nd ed. MacGraw –Hill.Singapore.
33.
Tion, M.A. and
Njoku, P.C (2009). Assessing Calcium availability
from limestone sources through bone and blood status of chickens. Nig J. Animal Prod. 36(1): 85 – 95.
