INTRODUCTION
Malnutrition constitutes a big threat to the
world’s public health. Its’ unbearable burden on the health systems,
socio-cultural and economic status of the society has already been reported [1].
It is a major public health problem in developing countries. Nigeria is one of
the countries experiencing malnutrition crises with as much as 32% under-5 children,
and 7% women of childbearing age malnourished; 2million children suffer severe
acute malnutrition and the country had the 2nd highest burden of
stunted children globally [2]. There are very high rates of stunting and
wasting, 45% mortality from malnutrition, huge challenges for public health and
development with economic losses of up to 11% in Gross Domestic Product [2]. In
simple terms malnutrition crisis, translated to increased death, poor cognitive
development, reduced performance in education and productivity with enormous
economic losses. Its’ etiology is linked with inadequate protein, energy,
vitamins and minerals intake, poverty, inadequate food production, ignorance,
uneven distribution of food, food restriction and taboo, poor sanitation, poor
food preservation techniques, and improper preparation of foods [3]. Of especially
prevalence is micronutrients deficiency and its’ devastating impact, which is majorly
due to prolonged inadequate intakes of dark green leafy vegetables, fruits,
nuts, and fortified foods. The deficiencies
in vitamins A and minerals like iron, and iodine, for instance, can cause innumerable
maternal and childhood deaths, with millions of survivors in various states of
nutritional disorders. Less severe deficiencies have been shown to impair
intelligence and strength, reduce work capacity and productivity thus hindering
economic development.
Most developing
countries have staples as their main food source with inadequate animal
proteins. These staples constitute essentially roots, tubers, cereals, and
legumes providing mainly carbohydrates due to poor presentation in the local
diets. These foods most often supply few or mono nutrients and are generally
limited in nutrient variety. The situation is compounded by nutrition
transition - the current adoption of highly refined and processed high-fat
foods with little or no physical activity due to market globalization,
industrialization, urbanization, and economic development. [5]. In addition, some
cereals and legumes are gradually going into extinction because of
non-consumption and/or poor perception. Certain individuals perceived cereals
and legumes as a poor man’s food, and subsequently saturate their daily diet with
convenient foods like bread, which are widely and frequently consumed because
of their availability. Bread is most often made from wheat which is imported
into Nigeria involving a huge expenditure of foreign exchange, high cost of
bread leading to inadequate consumption, and malnutrition of the dependent
masses.
To improve the
nutrient density of bread and ensure affordability to low-income earners who
constitute the larger population of consumers, the need to avail of other food
sources becomes pertinent. Many indigenous foods crops with good nutritional
qualities are available. They include but are not limited to African yam bean
(AYB), corn, pigeon pea, cassava, Bambara groundnut, cowpea, sorghum, millet,
etc. These food crops could be made into flour and used in daily diets. Some of
them like cassava, and corn have already been made into bread in combination
with wheat flour [6], but the nutrient density is more of carbohydrates. The
burden of malnutrition underscores the need to improve the nutrient density of
bread through production from nutrient-rich composite flours.
Corn
is one of the global cereals that are frequently and widely consumed by all age
groups. It is an annual crop, very
valuable as livestock feed, human food, and raw material for most industries [7].
It contains significant amounts of bioactive compounds in addition to basic
nutrients such as carbohydrates, vitamins, and minerals, that
are beneficial to humans. The whole grains have been linked to the reduced risk
of chronic diseases including cardiovascular disease type 2diabetes, obesity,
some cancers, improvement of digestive tract health, and health-promoting
effects (phytochemicals antioxidant and anti-proliferative activities) [8 –
11]. All corn types are rich in dietary fiber, vitamins (A, B, E, and K),
minerals (magnesium, potassium, and phosphorus), phenolic acids and flavonoids,
plant sterols, and other phytochemicals (lignins and
bound phytochemicals [12]. AYB is a legume known to improve the lives of subsistence
farmers. In some Nigerian communities, the seed grains are boiled and eaten
with other staples (yam, plantain, cassava, corn),
some are roasted to produce snacks. The flavor of the cook seeds is superior to
other pulses in local culinary dishes [13]. Its economic and nutritional value
in terms of protein digestibility, amino acids availability, energy, fatty
acids, vitamins, minerals, and fibre profile have
been documented by various authors [13 – 17]. The challenge is its hard seed
coat that requires overnight/long cooking; and its content of traces of
anti-nutritional substances [18]. Some food processing measures (dehulling, soaking, soaking/cooking, and roasting) have
been found to reduce significantly the contents of some of these
anti-nutritional substances [19], thus making AYB more acceptable for human
consumption. The nutritional composition of AYB has the potential to supplement
most diets consumed in the third world that lack some essential nutrients.
Since most food
products available to the world poor world’s deficient in dietary nutrients, food
crops with enormous nutritional potential such as AYB and corn will assist the
fight against malnutrition if combined as in composite flour. Consequently,
this study evaluated the proximate, vitamin, minerals, and anti-nutrients,
composition breads made from corn, and AYB seeds flour blends.
MATERIALS
AND METHODS
Study
design: Experimental study design was used.
Collection
and identification of raw materials
Corn grains and AYB seeds were
purchased from Ubani Main Market in Umuahia North Local Government Area, Abia
State. The raw materials were identified by an agronomist E. N. in the
Department of Crop and Soil, Michael Okpara
University of Agriculture, Umudike.
Raw
material preparation
Processing of AYB and corn seeds into flour: The seeds of AYB and corn were sorted to
remove extraneous materials, washed with tap water, and drained in a colander.
AYB seeds were roasted at 1910C on the medium gas mark for 40mins
with continuous stirring, then finely milled into flour, packaged in
polyethylene bags, and refrigerated. Corn seeds were oven-dried (Gallenkemp oven, 300 Plus, England) at 50 ºC for 24h, finely
milled in an attrition mill (7hp China), and stored in an air-tight container
inside the refrigerator until use.
Formulation
of composite flour: The flour samples were formed into
a composite in the ratio of 70(AYB): 30(Corn), 50(AYB): 50(Corn),
30(AYB): 70(Corn), 100(AYB), and 100 (Corn), measured in quantities of 70.85g (70% AYB:30% corn), 82.84g (50% AYB:50% corn), 94.81g (30% AYB:70%
corn), 52.87g
(100%AYB), 112.79g (100% corn) that will
contribute 1/3 of the daily dietary fiber intake as
described in [14]; and coded as 101, 102, 103, 104, and 105 respectively.
Sample 106 the control measured 118.69g (the quantity of Wheat flour that will
provide 12.7g dietary fibre) was calculated [20].
Preparation
of the bread samples: The blends formulated were baked using the
straight dough method as in [21]. All the ingredients were mixed in a plastic
bowl for 5minutes. The dough covered with damp clean muslin cloth was allowed
to prove for 55mins at 29oC, knocked back and molded into a loaf,
placed in a loaf tin, further proved in a prolonged cabinet for 90mins at 85
relative humidity, and baked at 250oc for 45 minutes. It was removed
and placed in a rack, later packaged in transparent polythene, ready for chemical
evaluation.
Chemical
analyses: The proximate compositions of the bread samples were
determined using standard procedures [22], total carbohydrate was obtained by
difference and the energy values were calculated using the Atwater factors. The
minerals (calcium, iron, magnesium, potassium, and sodium), vitamins (beta
carotene, thiamin, niacin, and vitamin C), and phytochemicals (flavonoids and saponins) were determined as
described by the Association of Official and Analytical Chemists [22].
Anti-nutrients (total tannins, and alkaloids) were
determined using standard methods [22, 23].
Statistical analysis: Data
generated from the study were reported as the mean of duplicate analyses.
One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) using the Statistical Product for Service Solution
version (23.0) was used to compare between the mean values while treatment
means were separated using Duncan multiple range test at 95% confidence level
(p<0.05).
RESULTS
The proximate contents of the bread samples (Table 1) ranged from 321.66 to
330.00kcals (energy), 8.29 to 9.41% (moisture), 9.64 to 25.11g/100g (protein), 2.29
to 4.03g/100g (fat), 0.46 to 2.71g/100g (fiber), 50.23 to 66.50 g/100g
(carbohydrates), and 80.60 to 81.71 (dry matter). Sample 101 had the lowest
moisture content (8.29), highest fibre (3.10g/100g),
ash (2.82g/100g), and dry matter (81.71) values. Sample 103 had the highest fat
(4.03g/100g) content; the control sample 106 (100%wheat flour) had the highest
energy (330.29kcals) and carbohydrates (66.50g/100g) but the lowest fibre (0.46g/100g) values; while sample 104 (100% AYB) had
the highest protein (25.11g/100g) and lowest carbohydrates (50.23g/100g) values.
DISCUSSION
The
proximate composition of breads produced from AYB and corn seeds flour blends (Table
1) showed that the study samples had significantly high (321.66 to 330.91kcal)
energy values and could be good sources of energy. This result is in agreement
with the work of Dogo et al. [24] where bread samples made from wheat and AYB flour
blends had improved energy value. However,
the study samples had significantly lower energy values compared to the control
sample 106 (100% wheat flour), this lower energy value of these flour samples
is an indication that they could be used for individuals on a reduced calories
diet. The moisture content of sample 105 (100% Corn flour) 9.41 % was
significantly higher (P<0.05) than other bread samples and 1.33 to 3.08% and
3.11 to 5.15% reported in Okafor and Ugwu [25] and Ojinnaka and Agubolum, [26] baked ready-to-eat snacks and cashew nut-wheat
cookies respectively; but similar to that in wheat and defatted cashew nut bread
samples [24] and in wheat flour with yam, vanilla flour and groundnut [27, 28]
respectively. This could be attributed to crop types, processing methods
employed, and end products. Moisture content is an important indicator for the
shelf life of the flour [29]. Low water contents allow long-term storage by
inhibiting the proliferation of microorganisms that can alter the product [30].
The low moisture values of the breads, therefore, implied better shelf-life as
the values were less than the 14% moisture limit for storage stability [31]. There was a significant difference in protein
contents of all the bread samples in this study. The protein contents of the
bread samples were significantly higher (P<0.05) than breads made from 100% wheat
flour (the control sample 106) and 100% whole cornflour
(sample 105). The increase in the protein content of the products could be
attributed to the blending of whole AYB and Whole corn seeds which are high in
protein contents [32]. This study protein range (9.64 to 25.11%) was higher
than 7.76 to 11.84% protein contents reported in Ojinnaka
and Agubolum [26] AYB and wheat flour cookies; and
13.88 to 15.90% in Okafor and Ugwu,
[25] extruded ready-to-eat baked products. This could be due to differences in
crop types, products types, and blending formulas. Igbabul
et al. [33] reported similar results
with bread made from wheat, plantain, and soy. The protein contents (10.92 to
25.11%) of the study samples excluding sample 105 (100% whole corn flour) are of
significant value since they are higher than the acceptable range (10.5% to 14%)
recommended for bread flour [34]. The fat content of the bread samples showed significant
differences from each other. All the study samples had higher fat contents
compared to the control sample 106 (100% wheat flour), but lower than 13.37 to
21.50% and 16.41 to 29.81% reported in [25, 26] for baked ready-to-eat snacks
and AYB-wheat cookies. This could be attributed to the composition of the study
blends (whole AYB and Whole corn seeds flour) with high-fat contents than wheat
flour, differences in product type, ingredients used, and method of processing/production.
The fat values are indicative of increased nutrient density. The increase in
the fat content of the breads is comparable to the finding of [35. 36] which showed
that the substitution of wheat flour by African yam bean seed and Cornflour respectively, increased the lipid contents of
composite breads. However, despite this increase, the lipid content of the breads
was below the recommended values (10- 25%) [37] which
could be beneficial for the individual on reduced-fat diets.
All
the study samples had significantly higher fibre
values compared with the control (100% wheat flour) at p < 0.05. The
increase in the fiber content of breads was due to the incorporation of whole
AYB and whole corn flours rich in fiber. These values were significantly higher
than 0.46 to 1.22% and 0.52 to 1.47% in [26, 25] AYB-wheat cookies and baked
ready-to-eat snacks. The result is in agreement with the work of Dogo et al., [24]
in the production of bread with blends of wheat and cornflour.
Increased fibre contents are beneficial to good
health, recommended for a healthy heart and gastrointestinal tract. These high fibre bread samples could reduce the risk of constipation
associated with the consumption of wheat flour breads [38]. The fiber contents
of the breads although improved is within the recommended values of less than
5% fibers for breads [37].
The
ash content of a food product is an indication of the mineral values. All the
bread samples had significantly (P<0.05) higher ash content compared with the
control 106 (100% wheat flour). By implication more mineral contents than the
control (100% wheat flour). The ash contents of the bread samples are within the
recommended values of less than 3% ash [37]. The ash values of the study breads
(1.40 to 2.82%) were relatively higher than 1.97 to 2.05% in baked ready-to-eat
snacks [25] and 0.46 to 1.22% in AYB-wheat cookies [26].
The
carbohydrates contents of the bread samples were significantly (p <0.05) lower
(50.23 to 64.58%) than 66.50% in 100% wheat flour bread (sample 106), but
comparable to 62.27 to 66.49% and 34.30 to 68.00% in baked ready-to-eat snacks
and AYB-wheat cookies [25], and [26] respectively. Carbohydrates contents in
the study breads decreased with the increased substitution of AYB. The lower carbohydrate
contents of the bread samples could be explained by the higher values of the
other proximate parameters since carbohydrates were determined by difference.
Similar trends have been reported [39], in the fortification of wheat flour
with defatted soy flour, and bread made from wheat and Cornflour
[24]. Despite the lower carbohydrates, the values (66.50% to 50.23%) of this study, were moderate and relatively close to the recommended
value of 68% carbohydrates [37].
Dry
matter contents of the study samples showed that sample 101 (30% AYB: 70% corn flour) had significantly higher
(P<0.05) dry matter content (81.71%), than the other samples. The least dry
matter content was observed in sample 105 (100% Corn flour) with the value
(80.60%) lower than other samples 106 Control (100% Wheat flour) 81.57%. This
result aligns with bread samples made from AYB and wheat flour blends [24].
The
vitamin composition of the breads made from AYB and corn seeds flour blends (Table
2) shows that the bread samples had significantly higher (P<0.05) pro-vitamin
A contents than bread made with 100% wheat flour (sample 106). The composite
blends (101– 30% AYB: 70% corn flour, 102– 50% AYB: 50% corn flour, 103– 70%
AYB: 30% corn flour) had higher values compared with the pure samples (104–
100% AYB, 105– 100% cornflour, 106– Control 100%
Wheat flour). These pro-vitamin A values were
significantly higher than 2.42 to 6.01µg/g
in [25] ready-to-eat baked snacks and could be attributed to the value addition
of AYB and corn seeds flour. The role of pro-vitamin A in vision, bone growth,
reproduction, cell division, and cell differentiation had already been
documented [40]. All the study breads had significantly higher(P<0.05)
Vitamin B1 (thiamine) content compared to 0.15mg/100g sample 105 (100% whole
corn) and 0.14mg/100g sample 106 (100% wheat flour bread). These values were
comparable to the increase in thiamin contents (0.13 to 0.42mg) in ready-to-eat
snacks made from blends of breadfruit, AYB, and coconut [25]. The blending of AYB and corn seeds flours in the
bread samples is a value addition strategy that improved the thiamin contents
of the study samples. Thiamine is involved in energy release during carbohydrate
and fat metabolism [41]. Surprisingly, sample 104 (100% AYB) had significantly
low (P<0.05) niacin content (0.62 mg/100g) compared to the other bread
samples. The bread samples that had whole corn flour had improved niacin
content, this could be because whole corn contains an appreciable amount of
niacin. Okafor and Ugwu [25]
had relatively lower 0.16 to 0.48mg niacin values. The importance of niacin in
energy transfer reactions in the metabolism of glucose, fat, and alcohol has
been reported [42]. Sample 101 (30% AYB: 70% corn flour) had the highest vitamin
C content (41.76mg/100g), while sample 105 (100% corn) had the lowest (4.76
mg/100g) vitamin C content. The increased content of vitamin C in the composite
samples could be the result of the addition of African yam beans which had an
appreciable vitamin C in the whole seeds. Vitamin C is known to protect the
immune system, improve prenatal health, eye, and skin status as well as
regulate body processes [43].
The
mineral composition of the bread samples shown in Table 3 revealed that the study
samples had significantly higher minerals (calcium, magnesium, potassium, and
sodium) contents (P< 0.05) than the control sample 106 (100% wheat flour)
except for sample 105 which had a lower potassium content than 100% wheat
flour. These values were comparable to
bread made from wheat and corn flour blends [24]. All samples with AYB, a
legume had high potassium density.
Calcium and magnesium contents increased with increased substitution
with corn. The importance of minerals is in human health has already been
underscored [33, 44 – 46]. Potassium is involved
in the metabolism of carbohydrates and protein, the regulation of heartbeat,
and the reduction in risk of hypertension and stroke [43]. The sodium and
potassium contents of the bread samples constitute valuable information for hypertensive
patients.
All study bread samples had higher flavonoid
content than the control samples 106 (100% wheat flour). Flavonoids have been
associated with anti-allergic, anti-oxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-cancer,
and anti-viral effects [47], and can enhance good flavor and limit the generation
of off-flavors. The saponin contents of the blends are
comparable to the range (0.07 to 0.11mg) reported in [26]. High saponin contents can reduce uptake of certain nutrients
including glucose and cholesterol [48]. The tannin content of the study samples
was slightly higher than 0.09 to 0.21 in AYB-wheat cookies [26]. Although tannin
is known to interfere with mineral absorption, and protein digestibility [49],
the bread samples contained trace amounts, considerably lower than 80mg/g of
anti-nutritional factors that are detrimental to health [50].
CONCLUSION
This work
is a response to the need to promote the utilization of low-cost indigenous
foods to improve consumers’ nutrition status and health benefits. The study
samples had higher protein, fat, fiber, moisture, and ash but lower energy and
carbohydrates compared to the control sample 106 (100% wheat flour). This
implies that the study samples had higher proximate density compared to
conventional wheat bread. The higher values of protein, fat, ash, fibre, vitamins, and minerals as shown in the study samples
are value addition results for an improved nutrient intake. The high nutrient
content of the African yam bean and cornflour blends
made the bread an excellent naturally available supplement for low nutrient-dense
diets. The lower energy and carbohydrates values of these
bread have health implications for individuals on low energy and carbohydrates
diets. The trace amounts of anti-nutrients found are within the safe level for
human consumption. Study bread can contribute to improved nutrients intake,
varied meals, increase the cultivation of under-utilized local crops, and reduce
of importation of wheat flour for better economic growth.
Conflict of interest
None
Acknowledgment
The authors are
indebted to the analytical staff of the Central Laboratory, National Root Crop
Research Institute, Umudike Abia
State Nigeria, and the Technical Staff of the Food Laboratory in the Department
of Human Nutrition and Dietetics, Michael Okpara
University of Agriculture Umudike, Abia State Nigeria
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