INTRODUCTION
The birth
of Biology has been traced to a period close to the 4th and 5th
century BC. A man by name Akmaeon of Crotona in the 5th
century practiced dissection aimed at finding out the source of human
intelligence through Anatomy and Zoology and observed from his remarkable
elucidation that the seat of intelligence is the brain and not the heart as
conceived by earlier submissions by some other scientists (History World Net,
2020). The former set of scientists meant well for science but no man knows
all, as science is ever growing and evolving.
The concept
of Biology (as a science) sprung forth as a simple coherent field in the 19th
century as Biological sciences emerged from traditions of medicine and natural
history reaching back to Ayurveda, ancient Egyptian medicine and the works of
Aristotle and Galen in ancient Greco-Roman world (Wikipedia, 2020).
History of
Biology predates the period at which humans began to write and store records of
non-poisonous food plants and understanding of habits of dangerous predators
because they discovered that their survival was hinged on these aspects of
existence of life and activities of living things.
Present day
Biology has paced from being a largely descriptive science (dealing with just
wholesome cells, organisms and wholesome life) to a discipline that
increasingly emphasizes the sub-cellular and molecular aspects of organisms and
attempts to relate structure with function at all levels of biological (life)
organization (Encyclopedia Britannica, 2020). Garland (2016) opines on the change on level of practices
in Biology and the history of complexity and diversity in twentieth century
life sciences.
Morange (2000a) emphasized that it has become
obvious that the possibilities from gene therapy in health care, and creation
of new varieties of animals and plants through genetic engineering, have
emanated from (significant) inputs from Molecular Biology.
Cobb, a historian of science in his
translation of the same published work of Morange
(2000b) on “Black box of Biology: The history of the Molecular Revolution”,
opined that since 1930s, a molecular vision has been transforming Biology.
In the
early to mid-nineteenth century when the concept of its being a modern science
sparked-off, it drew on various traditions, practices and areas of inquiry
(life issues that enhance and ensure human survival and healthier life). The
traditional history aspects of beginning of Biology generally targeted medicine
and natural history (Bioexplorer, 2020; Encyclopedia,
2020). Garland et al
(2017) in their overview of the nature of process in science, with particular
emphasis for Biology,exposited
that there is a major revolution in Biology during the twentieth century with
the introduction of new approaches associated with Molecular and Cell Biology,
and Molecular Genetics. Corroborating this trend in
development of Biology over the centuries.
Objectives
of this review are to:
Ø Trace the
history of study of Biology.
Ø Exposit
various developments in study of Biology over the past decades to date.
Ø Suggest
some attributes of modern day definition for Biology based on trends and
developments.
1.1.
Background
History of study of Biology and the good age long definition
The
tradition of medicine dates back to the records of great ancient Greek medical
practitioners such as Hippocrates of Kos (460 BCE) who contributed to early
understanding of Anatomy and Physiology while tradition of natural history
dates back to the works of remarkable men like Aristotle (384 – 322 BCE) with
his exposited history of animals and related natural learning; and the works of
Theophrastus (287 BCE) on understanding of plants, as these studies made inputs
into Botany and Zoology and later into Comparative Biology (Science
Encyclopedia, 2020). Centuries later, other contributions went into the records
of history of Biology from men like Leonardo da Vinci’s ground breaking
anatomical drawings, Andrea Cesalprino’s early period
classification of plants based on flower, seeds and fruits characteristics and
Harvey’s great discoveries that made mankind know the true nature of the human
circulatory system which stands as one of greatest discoveries on human body
before the other high level insightful discovery of structure of
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) in 1953 by James Watson and Francis Crick in the 20th century (which
provided the biochemical basis of transfer of gene information of inheritance
from parent to offspring across generational lines). Then the discovery of the
microscope in the 1660s helped through descriptive elucidations on the
structures of minute organisms and sub-cellular features of live such as blood
corpuscles, semen, nerve cells, among others (History World Net, 2020). Humagain (2017) regarded Aristotle as the father of
Biology. However, from the contributions of modern Cell Biology, Matlin et al (2018) in a landmark contribution
to developments and the current shape of Biology, opined that with Molecular
Biology at the forefront and modern Cell Biology following in this emerging
trend in Biology, the boundaries’ of Biological understanding are being
propelled forward. The writer here is a member of the committee on conceptual
and historical studies of science at the University of Chicago, in the United
States of America. It is pertinent to recall that Cowdry’s
classic watershed work titled “General Cytology” (Cowdry,
1924)) has been inspirational to the development of modern Cell Biology as it
contributes to the current shape and developments in Biology, and as a field of
science.
As these
great Greek philosophers curiously looked with interest at the range of living
creatures, from the lowest (which were known to be plants by then) to the
highest (which is man), from standings on taxonomical hierarchy, a German
naturalist coined a Greek words in the early 19th century for study
of Biology, from the words ‘bios’ meaning life and ‘logos’ meaning discourse or
study (Bioexplorer, 2020; History World Net. 2020)
and the divisions of Biology at this period in history were mainly Botany and
Zoology or Anatomy (History World Net. 2020).
1.2.
Developments
in study of Biology over the recent decades to date and breathtaking inputs
from molecularization
Having
peeped into where we came from in the concept of Biology, albeit this
historical life science subject, we take a foray into recent and current
studies, concepts and issues in Biology, and some typical problems it has been
used to solve for mankind. Based
on history over the centuries, there is an increasingly rapid development of
the Life sciences over the past decades (Meunier and Nickelsen, 2018).
Modern
Biology is based on several unifying themes, such as the cell theory, genetics
and inheritance (Biology Uni Hamburg, 2020). Drawing
form the history of Biology, the science of Biology in the earliest period was
defined as the study of life and living things through rigorously tested and
peer-reviewed scientific methods. Evolving present day Biology, being now a
vast and electric field is composed of many disciplines that study the
structure, function, growth, distribution, evolution and other features of
living organisms (Lumen Learning, 2020). Encyclopaedia
Britannica, (2020) defined modern Biology as study of living things and other
life processes and added that the modern tendency of Biology is towards
cross-disciplinary research that has resulted in significant overlap of the field
of Biology with other scientific disciplines in pure Medicine, Chemistry and
Physics, with emerged Biological disciplines in Biomedicine, Biochemistry and
Biophysics respectively. Matlin
et al (2018) published a remarkable work in which they emphasized that even the
discipline of modern Cell Biology, though clearly overshadowed by Molecular
Biology, has stretched beyond the bounds of purely microscopic observation to
include Chemical, Physical and Genetic analysis of cells.
It is a
known fact that in the earliest period in history of Biology, microscopy,
molecular studies and cell division, transmission of genetic materials,
molecular and cellular basis of embryology and reproduction where unknown to
scientists and invariably man. Science is not static but developmental and
growing from the past. As such, we now find exposition of contents and branches
of modern Biology to include but not explicitly Anatomy, Actinobiology,
Bioinformatics, Biotechnology, Biochemistry, Cytology, Cell Biology, Ethology,
Etiology, Genetics, Forensic Biology, Environmental Management, Limnology,
Molecular Biology, Nidology,
Pathology/Pathobiology, Serology, Sedimentology, Systems Biology/Computational
and Mathematical Biology, Sitology and Therapeutics (Bioscience, 2020). Modern
Biology is in the middle of a paradigm shift (Murphy, 2020). Apparently, this goes beyond study of living things. For instance, the
entry of Systems Biology and Synthetic Biology into the framework of Biology is
innovatively contributing to science of human and animal health care, and
environmental management. They have brought in synergized collaborative inputs
of Biology, Bioinformatics, Computer Science, Chemistry, Physics and
Engineering- tackling and solving life related tasks as accompanying goals,
through developed robust predictive indices. Then, introduction of
high-throughput Molecular Biology techniques has immensely contributed to open
up other important areas of System Biology to include study of linked genetic
diversity and developmental biological mechanisms (Kirschner,
2005). Systems Biology takes into account the interactions of key molecular
elements such as DNA, RNA (ribonucleic acid), proteins and cells with respect
to one another and (complimentarily) integrated with knowledge and insights
from Computer Science (Shiel Jr,
2018). Systems Biology has shown to be a holistic approach to study molecules
(including DNAs and RNAs) and cells in Biology (Ma’ayam,
2017). Good Systems Biology balances the breaking of a system apparatus, define
the synthesis and functions of these parts and understanding how these parts
cooperate to produce the behavior (including observed processes and identity)
as a whole (Hillmer, 2015).
In the book “The Black Box of
Biology”, Morange (2020b) opined that what led to the
incredible transformation of Biology was molecularization
of a large part of Biology, and not a simple accumulation of new results.
One of the
recently emerged branches of Biology known as Computational Biology on its part
uses biological data to develop algorithms or models and unravels the
relationship between them, which Systems Biology then holistically engages to
tackle issues confronting mankind. These models can describe what biological
tasks are carried out by particular nucleic acid or peptide sequences, and how
changes in cell organization influence cell behavior. In Bioinformatics we look
at how we can efficiently store, annotate, search and compare information from
Biological measurements and observations (Murphy, 2020). This is now present
age Biology spanning across structure, function, processes, behavior, cell,
molecule, proteins, informatics, and computer science in features.
We recall a
recent attempt by Humagain (2017) to redefine Biology
and this author defined it as “the science which deals with the study of
structure, organization, life processes, interactions, origin and evolution of
living organisms’.
Also, we
draw cues from the very inclusive Lionel Robbins’ definition normally engaged
for the subject “Economics”, which is stated that: “Economics studies human
behavior as a relationship between ends and scarce means, which have
alternative uses” and dated back to 1935 when it was proposed (Shizgel, 2012). This definition makes it easier to actually
get the highlights and concepts of this subject from its embracive nature of
developments and trends in economics. Today’s Economics has taken some further
deeps based on developments and our evolving world.
Revolutionary
changes in Biology of the last few decades before 1964 was a combination of
rapid and radical shifts in Biological concepts and techniques that marked the
period about a century ago when Biology in its modern form came into being in
several fields at the same time (Everet,1964).
The incredible transformation of
Biology has involved the fusion of molecular principles and concepts with those
of other disciplines that includes Physics, Structural Chemistry and
Computational Biology (Morange, 2020a; Tanghe, 2020). This has enabled developments that produced
human genome sequencing, emergence of Synthetic Biology, Systems Biology and
Epigenetics, with its attributes of breathtaking persuasive and original inputs
applied to Biology.
Science as
a matter of fact is an endless (and evolving) search for truth as scientific
advance is a succession of newer representations superseding (developing in
actual fact) older ones and is impelled by two main factors that are namely
technological advance and a guiding vision, and there should be a balance between
them (Woese,2004). Molecular Biology which has dominated our 20th
century Biology has been a mixed grill of these two, being of mixed blessing
but more with positive attributes as the negative attributes that could be
wrongly exploited in unethical practices are screened and checked by the
organizations regulating its practice.
The
discovery of the electron in 1897 marked the beginning of a major turning point
in the history of science (National Research Council of the United States,
2009). This now enables efficient and robust use of increasing large volume of
data for inquiry, insights, elucidations, discoveries and wide range
applications that supports healthcare (for therapeutic discoveries and
innovative life support systems), industry, agriculture (to increase yields and
in disease controls), environmental management (bio-remediation, eco-friendly
environment and protection of rare species) and space explorations. The Life
sciences have been in a midst of historical period analogous to the 20th
century in the Physical sciences, with the entry of the electron microscope
into the forays of scientist discoveries (National Research Council of the
United States, 2009). Biology, like Physics and Chemistry now relies a lot on
studies and use of matter with small sizes within life organization frames,
such as molecules, micro-organelles and other forms of very minute cell and
tissue inclusions to study and tackle issues that help promote life on earth.
Molecular
Biology is an active player in the reductionist concept, helping to unravel the
bio-molecular components of cells at various levels of organization- which are
organismal, communities and ecosystems. The concept of reductionism emphasis
that the understanding of more smaller parts of a system is important for
understanding the umbrella system itself, which is the whole organismal big
picture, the minute or sub-unit molecules and cell inclusions of small parts
make up the big organism (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2017). Thus,
scientists now walk from the smaller parts into the bigger one. The recent
success at developing COVID-19 vaccine, following a SARS-COV-2 microbe-man war
in the most recent pandemic that started late 2019, has significantly involved
use of the tools of Molecular Biology such as mRNA and other forms of gene
technology, with inputs from Bioinformatics, Biochemistry (a strongly close
ally of Molecular Biology) and finally Production line technology to produce
large quantities of these vaccines to meet mass demands and support wellbeing
of man in the midst of devastating effects of COVID-19 pandemic Invariably,
coordinated distribution and use of effective vaccines, and engagement of
preventive measures compliments each other during fight backs against epidemics
or pandemics.
Kay (2000) remarked that for those who
haven’t noticed, genetics make ample use of communication concepts and imagery;
genes are information, DNA is a language, the genome is an encyclopedia, and
organisms are genetic communication systems. This brings to fore, how Molecular
Biology and Molecular Genetics are transforming Biology, enlightening the
community of Biologists and Bio-related scientists, making significant inputs
that are solving problems in human health, agriculture, veterinary animal life
and in our ecosystem as now done through Molecular Ecology, a novel entry to
support environmental management and ecosystem sustenance.
As
Biological science advanced during the 20th century, different
fields in science such as Computer science, Informatics, Physics, Astronomy,
Mathematics and Earth Sciences, came into use and play in Biology to study and
tackle the complex sub-systems and factors that influence life of
hierarchically dominant living systems on earth, in the various modern and
ancient branches of Biology (that included applications in Genetics, Cell
Biology, Ecology, Entomology, Botany, Physiology, Anatomy, Microbiology,
Biochemistry, Parasitology, Epidemiology, Conservation Biology and Microbiology
among others). These have helped to handle and analyze large complex data,
digitize platforms and frameworks, test intricately woven models and hypothesis
and more efficiently share useful information.
As such,
over the scores of decades, the scope of Biology has emerged with a broader and
more intricate framework that has gone beyond the earliest definition engaged.
This has been buffered by emerging challenges confronting man and life.
1.3.
Some
suggested attributes for modern day definition for Biology based on trends and
developments
In the
glimpse of the fore-going, attributes of modern day definition for Biology
could incorporate features such as: “study of living things, molecular and
synthetic features, and
bio-process technologies applied to life systems’. This is a
build-up on the earliest definition of Biology. Garland et al (2017) remarked that Biology is always an
ongoing exploration of unsolved problems.
We acknowledge the remarkable effort of the great earliest Philosopher
scientists in Biology, who developed the earliest definition. Concepts and
findings from modern day Biological investigations are being used to tackle and
solve old and emerging problems in agriculture, health, veterinary science and
the environment, and as the components of the Pure and Applied Sciences of Biology,
Chemistry and Physics keep evolving and supporting each other.
Acknowledgement
We thank noble and eminent Professors
and Scholars of Journal of History of Biology in the United States and Europe,
who read through our manuscript; and made useful technical, funding and cost
saving suggestions.
We acknowledge some aspects of our
extracts that came through scholarly works at Stanford University and
University of Chicago.
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