Aspects of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Aquatic Ecosystems: A One Health Perspective

2.1 Natural sources

Natural sources of PAHs primarily include biogenic synthesis, geological processes, and forest fires. Biogenic synthesis occurs through the microbial decomposition of organic material, particularly in wetland ecosystems, where the accumulation and subsequent breakdown of organic matter can release PAHs into surrounding water bodies. This process is often facilitated by anaerobic conditions prevalent in wetlands, which promote the formation of these compounds as organic matter decomposes (Harwell & Gentile, 2014; Page et al., 2005). Geological processes also contribute significantly to PAH levels in aquatic environments. Due to natural weathering and erosion, PAHs can leach from sedimentary rocks and fossil fuel-rich regions into water bodies. Such geological events can mobilize PAHs trapped in sediments for millions of years, introducing them into the aquatic ecosystem (Levengood & Schaeffer, 2011; Troisi et al., 2006).

Forest fires are another natural source of PAHs. The uncontrolled burning of organic matter during wildfires generates a variety of PAHs, which can be transported into nearby water bodies through runoff and atmospheric deposition. The combustion of biomass releases PAHs into the atmosphere, where they can subsequently settle into aquatic environments during precipitation events (Van Metre et al., 2000; Okafor & Opuene, 2007). The characteristics of PAHs originating from natural sources often differ from those of anthropogenic sources, with natural PAHs typically being less complex and more biodegradable (Pereira et al., 2009).

2.2 Anthropogenic sources

Anthropogenic sources of PAHs are more diverse and include industrial activities, urban runoff, and oil spills. Industrial activities, such as petroleum refining, coal mining, and waste incineration, significantly contribute to PAH pollution in aquatic ecosystems. These industries release PAHs directly into water bodies through effluents or indirectly through atmospheric deposition. For instance, oil spills, which can occur during the transportation and storage of petroleum products, introduce large quantities of PAHs into aquatic environments, leading to severe ecological consequences (Ain et al., 2023; Honda & Suzuki, 2020). The effects of oil spills are compounded by the fact that PAHs can persist in the environment for extended periods, bioaccumulating in aquatic organisms and entering the food web (Melillos et al., 2023; Huang et al., 2014).

Stormwater runoff is another critical pathway for PAH introduction into aquatic ecosystems. Rainwater can wash PAHs from urban surfaces into stormwater drainage systems, particularly in areas with high vehicular traffic or industrial activity. This runoff can carry PAHs into rivers, lakes, and coastal waters, exacerbating pollution levels in these ecosystems (Anyanwu et al., 2021; Boehm et al., 2004). The composition of PAHs in stormwater runoff often reflects the urban landscape, with higher concentrations of heavier PAHs associated with combustion processes (Opuene et al., 2008).

The production and use of creosote and coal tar are also significant anthropogenic sources of PAHs. These substances, commonly used as preservatives and sealants, can leach into the environment through runoff or improper disposal, contaminating nearby water bodies (Kong et al., 2022; Barata et al., 2005). The PAHs from these sources are often characterized by a predominance of heavier compounds, which are more toxic and persistent in the environment (Salazar-Coria et al., 2007).

In addition to these sources, shipping activities contribute to PAH pollution through operational discharges and accidental spills. The maritime transport of oil and other hydrocarbons can release PAHs into the marine environment, particularly in busy shipping lanes or near ports (Nielsen et al., 2020; Tao et al., 2022). The cumulative effect of these anthropogenic activities results in a complex mixture of PAHs in aquatic ecosystems, with varying toxicity and persistence depending on their source (Pérez et al., 2008; Neff et al., 2011).

The ecological impact of PAHs in aquatic ecosystems is profound. These compounds can bioaccumulate in aquatic organisms, leading to toxic effects that can disrupt reproductive and developmental processes. For instance, exposure to PAHs has been linked to deformities and immunosuppression in fish and invertebrates (Cram et al., 2006; Burggren et al., 2015). Furthermore, the long-term presence of PAHs in aquatic environments poses significant risks to wildlife and human health, particularly for communities relying on these water bodies for subsistence fishing or recreation.

2.3 PAH Entry Routes into Aquatic Environments

PAHs enter aquatic environments through various pathways, which can be broadly categorized into point sources and non-point sources. Understanding these entry routes is crucial for assessing the ecological risks associated with PAH contamination in aquatic ecosystems.

One of the primary sources of PAHs is the combustion of fossil fuels, which occurs in both industrial and vehicular circumstances. For instance, vehicle emissions and industrial processes contribute significantly to atmospheric PAH levels, which can subsequently deposit into water bodies through atmospheric deposition and runoff (Chang et al., 2018; Baldwin et al., 2020). In urban areas, road dust and runoff from impervious surfaces can transport PAHs into rivers and lakes, exacerbating the contamination of aquatic environments (Kumata et al., 2002). The study by Zakaria et al. (2002) highlighted that spillage and dumping of used crankcase oil represent significant contributors of PAHs to sediments.

In addition to urban runoff, wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) are recognized as critical point sources of PAH contamination. These facilities often discharge treated effluents that may still contain residual PAHs, particularly from industrial sources such as coking plants (Zhang et al., 2012; Chen et al., 2020). The study by Chen et al. (2020) stresses the role of coking wastewater treatment plants in contributing to PAH levels in sediments, indicating that industrial discharges are a significant pathway for PAH entry into aquatic systems. Furthermore, due to their hydrophobic nature, the persistence of PAHs in sediments means that they can accumulate over time, leading to long-term ecological impacts (Agarwal et al., 2006).

Natural events also play a role in transporting PAHs into aquatic environments. For example, floods and heavy rainfall can mobilize PAHs from terrestrial sources, such as contaminated soils, into rivers and lakes (Chang et al., 2018). This is particularly relevant in regions where industrial activities have historically contaminated the land, as these pollutants can be washed into waterways during extreme weather events. The historical analysis of PAH pollution in lake sediments by Chang et al. (2018) shows how natural hydrological processes can exacerbate existing contamination.

Another significant entry route for PAHs into aquatic environments is through oil spills, which can introduce large quantities of these compounds into marine and freshwater ecosystems. The aftermath of oil spills, such as the T/V "Erika" incident, demonstrates how catastrophic events can lead to acute PAH pollution, affecting the water column and sediment layers (Tronczyński et al., 2004). The immediate and long-term ecological consequences of such spills are profound, as PAHs can bioaccumulate in aquatic organisms, leading to toxic effects and potential human health risks through the consumption of contaminated seafood (Moslen et al., 2021; Honda & Suzuki, 2020).

3. PAH Fate and Behavior in Aquatic Ecosystems

The fate and behavior of PAHs in aquatic ecosystems are critical for understanding their environmental impact, particularly their partitioning and distribution in water, sediments, and biota, their biodegradation, photodegradation, bioaccumulation, and the factors influencing their persistence.

3.1 Partitioning and Distribution in Water, Sediments, and Biota

The distribution of PAHs in aquatic environments is influenced by their chemical properties, such as molecular weight and hydrophobicity. Low-molecular-weight PAHs tend to remain in the dissolved phase. In contrast, high-molecular-weight PAHs are more likely to associate with particulate matter and sediments due to their lower solubility in water and higher affinity for organic carbon (Li et al., 2022; Liu et al., 2021; Li et al., 2009). For instance, studies have shown that four- and five-ring PAHs are predominantly found in sediments, accounting for significant portions of the total PAH concentrations (Montuori et al., 2022; Cao et al., 2010). The partitioning of PAHs between water and sediment is often described by the partitioning coefficient, which reflects the tendency of these compounds to adsorb onto sediment particles. Factors such as sediment organic carbon content and particle size are crucial in this process (El Deeb et al., 2007; Qiao et al., 2007).

Moreover, the diffusion of PAHs across the water-sediment interface is a critical mechanism that governs their distribution. When the diffusion coefficient is less than 0.2, it indicates that PAHs are moving from water to sediment, while values greater than 0.8 suggest a reverse diffusion from sediment to water (Li et al., 2022). This dynamic equilibrium is essential for understanding how PAHs can persist in the environment and potentially re-enter the water column, affecting aquatic organisms and ecosystems (Chen et al., 2018; Zhao et al., 2022).

3.2 Biodegradation, Photodegradation, and Bioaccumulation

Biodegradation is a significant pathway for the removal of PAHs from aquatic environments. Microbial communities can metabolize low-molecular-weight PAHs as carbon and energy sources, while higher molecular weight PAHs often require more complex co-metabolic processes for degradation (Liu et al., 2021; Zhao et al., 2022). The rate of biodegradation is influenced by environmental conditions such as temperature, salinity, and the presence of nutrients, which can enhance or inhibit microbial activity (Xia & Wang, 2008). For example, warmer temperatures typically accelerate microbial metabolism, leading to faster degradation rates of PAHs (Liu et al., 2021; Chen et al., 2018).

Photodegradation also plays a vital role in the fate of PAHs, particularly in surface waters where sunlight can penetrate. This abiotic process can lead to the breakdown of PAHs into less harmful compounds, although it is generally less effective for high-molecular-weight PAHs due to their stability (Zhao et al., 2022). The interaction between biodegradation and photodegradation is complex, as the presence of specific microbial populations can enhance the photodegradation of PAHs by producing reactive intermediates (Zhao et al., 2022).

Bioaccumulation is another critical aspect of PAH behavior in aquatic ecosystems. PAHs can accumulate in the tissues of aquatic organisms (Aigberua et al., 2023), leading to potential toxic effects and biomagnification through the food web (Zhang et al., 2015). The extent of bioaccumulation is influenced by the lipophilicity of the PAHs, the organism's feeding behavior, and the availability of PAHs in the surrounding environment (Chen et al., 2018; Li et al., 2009). Studies have shown that sediments act as reservoirs for PAHs, which can be released into the water column, thereby increasing the exposure risk for aquatic organisms (Chen et al., 2018; Nemr et al., 2006).

3.3 Factors Influencing PAH Persistence

Several environmental factors influence the persistence of PAHs in aquatic ecosystems. Temperature is a critical factor, as higher temperatures can enhance microbial activity and increase the rates of biodegradation (Li et al., 2021; Chen et al., 2018). Salinity also affects microbial communities and their ability to degrade PAHs, with some studies indicating that higher salinity levels can inhibit the biodegradation process (Li et al., 2021; Chen et al., 2018). pH levels can further influence the chemical speciation of PAHs and their interactions with sediment and organic matter, affecting their bioavailability and degradation rates (Chen et al., 2018; Zhao et al., 2022).

Sediment characteristics, such as organic carbon content and particle size, are also crucial in determining PAH persistence. Sediments with high organic carbon content can adsorb more PAHs, reducing their bioavailability and prolonging their residence time in the environment (El Deeb et al., 2007; Li et al., 2009). Additionally, fine sediment particles have a greater surface area for adsorption, leading to higher concentrations of PAHs in these sediments compared to coarser sediments (Chen et al., 2006; El Deeb et al., 2007).

3.4 Transport Mechanisms in Water Bodies

Various mechanisms facilitate the transport of PAHs in aquatic systems, including advection, diffusion, and sedimentation. Advection refers to the movement of PAHs with water currents, which can transport these contaminants over long distances (Ya et al., 2017; Jiao et al., 2011). Diffusion plays a role in the exchange of PAHs between water and sediment, as previously discussed, while sedimentation involves settling particulate-bound PAHs to the sediment layer (Jiao et al., 2011; Chen et al., 2018).

Suspended particulate matter (SPM) is fundamental in transporting PAHs, as it can adsorb these compounds and facilitate their movement through the water column (Zheng et al., 2016; Jiao et al., 2011). The concentration of PAHs in SPM is often higher than in the water column, indicating that SPM acts as a significant vector for PAH transport (Zheng et al., 2016; Chen et al., 2018). Furthermore, atmospheric deposition can introduce PAHs into water bodies, which can subsequently partition into sediments or be transported downstream (Jiao et al., 2011; Chen et al., 2018).

4. Toxicological Effects of PAHs on Aquatic Organisms

The toxicological effects of PAHs on aquatic organisms are profound, influencing various biological systems and leading to acute and chronic toxicity, genotoxicity, reproductive and developmental impairments, and immune system disruptions (Figure 1).

4.1 Acute and Chronic Toxicity

Acute toxicity refers to the immediate harmful effects of PAH exposure, while chronic toxicity encompasses long-term adverse effects that may not be immediately apparent. Studies have shown that PAHs can cause significant mortality and sub-lethal effects in aquatic organisms. For instance, research on the amphibian species (Xenopus laevis) demonstrated that exposure to PAH-contaminated sediments resulted in stunted growth and developmental delays, with complete mortality observed at high concentrations (Bryer et al., 2006; Baldwin et al., 2016). Similarly, fish species exposed to PAH-laden environments exhibited acute toxicity, characterized by behavioral changes, impaired swimming ability, and increased mortality rates (Honda & Suzuki, 2020).

Chronic exposure to PAHs can lead to bioaccumulation in aquatic organisms, particularly in fish and invertebrates. High molecular weight PAHs (HMW PAHs) are more persistent in the environment and tend to accumulate in the fatty tissues of organisms, leading to chronic health effects such as endocrine disruption and carcinogenicity (Etuk et al., 2016). The bioaccumulation of PAHs in aquatic food webs poses significant risks to the organisms and predators, including humans, who consume contaminated aquatic life (Zhang et al., 2015).

4.2 Effects on Fish, Invertebrates, and Amphibians

The effects of PAHs on aquatic organisms vary significantly among species. Fish are susceptible to PAH exposure during critical developmental stages. For example, developing fish embryos have been identified as highly susceptible to the toxic effects of PAHs, with studies indicating that exposure can lead to malformations, reduced hatching success, and increased mortality (Cherr et al., 2017). Invertebrates, such as amphipods and chironomids, also exhibit adverse responses to PAH exposure, including reduced growth, reproductive failure, and altered community structure in contaminated habitats (Baldwin et al., 2016; Adeniji et al., 2018).

Amphibians, who often inhabit aquatic and terrestrial environments, are also at risk of PAH contamination. The study above on (Xenopus laevis) highlights the vulnerability of amphibians to PAHs, with significant developmental impacts observed even at relatively low concentrations (Baldwin et al., 2016; Bryer et al., 2006). The implications of these findings extend to ecosystem health, as the decline of sensitive species can disrupt food webs and ecological balance.

4.3 Genotoxicity and Carcinogenicity in Aquatic Species

Genotoxicity refers to the ability of a substance to damage genetic material, leading to mutations and cancer. PAHs, particularly those with higher molecular weights, have been shown to possess significant genotoxic potential. Research indicates that exposure to PAH-contaminated environments can induce DNA damage in various aquatic species, including fish and invertebrates (Weerakkodige et al., 2021; Matson et al., 2005). For instance, studies have demonstrated that PAHs can lead to chromosomal aberrations in aquatic turtles, indicating a direct link between PAH exposure and genetic damage (Matson et al., 2005).

The carcinogenic properties of PAHs are well-documented, with compounds such as benzo(a)pyrene classified as known human carcinogens (Semedo et al., 2014). In aquatic ecosystems, the bioaccumulation of these carcinogenic PAHs poses significant risks to aquatic organisms and higher trophic levels, including humans. The potential for PAHs to induce cancer in aquatic species underscores the importance of monitoring and regulating PAH levels in contaminated environments (Honda & Suzuki, 2020).

4.4 Impacts on Reproductive, Developmental, and Immune Systems

PAHs have been shown to disrupt reproductive and developmental processes in aquatic organisms. Exposure to PAHs can lead to reduced fertility, altered reproductive behaviors, and developmental abnormalities in offspring. For example, studies have demonstrated that fish exposed to PAHs during critical reproductive periods exhibit lower egg viability and impaired larval development (Cherr et al., 2017; Etuk et al., 2016). The immunotoxic effects of PAHs further complicate the health of aquatic organisms, as compromised immune systems can increase susceptibility to diseases and reduce overall population resilience (Honda & Suzuki, 2020).

The impacts of PAHs on immune function are particularly concerning, as they can lead to increased mortality rates in populations already stressed by environmental changes. Research has indicated that PAH exposure can result in altered immune responses in fish, reducing their ability to combat infections and increasing their vulnerability to pathogens (Honda & Suzuki, 2020). Such immunotoxic effects can have cascading impacts on aquatic ecosystems, as healthy populations are essential for maintaining ecological balance.

4.5 Biomarkers of PAH Exposure in Aquatic Life

Biomarkers are critical tools for assessing the exposure and effects of PAHs on aquatic organisms. Various biochemical indicators, such as the activity of cytochrome P450 enzymes, can be used to evaluate the metabolic response to PAH exposure (Semedo et al., 2014). Elevated levels of these biomarkers could correlate with increased PAH concentrations in the environment, providing a means to monitor pollution levels and assess the health of aquatic ecosystems (Honda & Suzuki, 2020).

Genotoxicity assays, such as the comet assay, also allow researchers to assess DNA damage in aquatic organisms exposed to PAHs (Weerakkodige et al., 2021). These biomarkers help understand the extent of PAH contamination and serve as early warning indicators of ecological health.

5. Human Health Implications of PAH Contamination in Aquatic Ecosystems

The PAHs contamination in aquatic ecosystems is profound and multifaceted, particularly concerning human health. PAHs are known for their persistence in the environment and potential to bioaccumulate and biomagnify through food webs. This phenomenon poses significant risks to both ecological systems and human health, requiring a thorough assessment of the mechanisms of bioaccumulation and biomagnification, exposure pathways, health risks, and the vulnerability of specific populations (Figure 2).

8.1 Source Control and Pollution Prevention Measures

Source control and pollution prevention are foundational strategies in mitigating the impact of PAHs. These measures aim to reduce the generation of pollutants at their source rather than managing them after they have been released into the environment. Effective source control can involve regulatory measures that limit emissions from industrial processes, transportation, and other activities known to contribute to PAH contamination (Perelo, 2010). For instance, implementing stricter emission standards for vehicles and industrial facilities can significantly reduce the release of PAHs into the air, soil, and water systems (Cai et al., 2020).

Moreover, pollution prevention strategies include adopting cleaner technologies and practices. For example, industries can be encouraged to switch to less hazardous materials and processes that do not produce PAHs as byproducts (Plank et al., 2020). Educational initiatives aimed at businesses and the public can also foster a culture of pollution prevention, stressing the importance of sustainable practices and the long-term benefits of reducing environmental pollutants (Fu et al., 2017). Integrating these strategies into corporate social responsibility (CSR) frameworks can enhance their effectiveness as organizations increasingly recognize their role in environmental stewardship (Córdoba‐Pachón et al., 2014).

8.2 Remediation Techniques: Bioremediation, Phytoremediation, and Chemical Treatment

When PAHs are already present in the environment, remediation techniques become essential. Bioremediation and phytoremediation have gained prominence due to their effectiveness and environmental friendliness. Bioremediation utilizes microorganisms to degrade contaminants, including PAHs, into less harmful substances. This method can be particularly effective in soil and sediment contaminated with hydrocarbons, as demonstrated in various studies that highlight the role of microbial communities in breaking down these pollutants (Adetutu et al., 2014; Cai et al., 2020).

Phytoremediation, on the other hand, involves using plants to absorb, stabilize, or degrade contaminants. Some plant species have shown remarkable capabilities in extracting PAHs from contaminated soils, thereby improving soil quality and reducing the bioavailability of these harmful compounds (Almeida et al., 2017). The mechanisms of phytoremediation, such as phytoextraction and phytostabilization, have been extensively researched, revealing their potential in managing PAH-contaminated sites (Yavari et al., 2015). Combining bioremediation and phytoremediation can create synergistic effects, enhancing the efficiency of remediation efforts (Lei et al., 2021).

Chemical treatment methods, while often more rapid than biological approaches, can pose risks of secondary pollution and may need to be more sustainable. Techniques such as chemical oxidation or thermal desorption can reduce PAH concentrations but require careful management to mitigate potential environmental impacts (Liu et al., 2018). Therefore, a balanced approach that prioritizes bioremediation and phytoremediation, supplemented by chemical methods when necessary, is recommended for effective PAH remediation.

8.3 Regulatory Frameworks and International Agreements for PAH Management

The management of PAHs is also governed by various regulatory frameworks and international agreements that aim to protect human health and the environment. These frameworks provide guidelines for monitoring, reporting, and managing PAH emissions and contamination, ensuring that countries adhere to established environmental standards. Furthermore, local and regional policies are crucial in implementing these international agreements. Therefore, organizations should incorporate stakeholder input to adequately address local concerns and conditions for a practical regulatory framework. Engaging communities in decision-making can enhance compliance and foster a sense of ownership over environmental protection initiatives (Renn, 2015). Policymakers increasingly recognize the importance of integrating scientific research with public policy to create evidence-based regulations that effectively address PAH contamination (Spitters et al., 2017).

8.4 Enhancing Public Awareness and Stakeholder Involvement

Public awareness and stakeholder involvement are critical components of successful PAH management strategies. Educating the public about the sources and risks associated with PAHs can empower communities to take action and advocate for better environmental practices. Initiatives that promote environmental education in schools and community organizations can significantly enhance public understanding of pollution issues and the importance of sustainable practices (Fu et al., 2017).

Stakeholder involvement in environmental governance is essential for developing effective policies and interventions. Collaborative approaches that include input from various stakeholders, such as government agencies, industry representatives, non-governmental organizations, and community members, can lead to more comprehensive and accepted solutions (Aigwi et al., 2020). For instance, participatory decision-making processes can help identify local priorities and foster consensus on remediation strategies, ensuring that diverse perspectives are considered in policy formulation (Renn, 2015).

Moreover, leveraging technology and social media can enhance public engagement and awareness. Online platforms can also facilitate disseminating information about PAH risks and remediation efforts, allowing for broader community participation and feedback.

9. Research Gaps and Future Directions

Research on PAHs has gained significant attention due to their pervasive environmental presence and associated health risks (Figure 6). As the understanding of PAH contamination evolves, several research gaps and future directions have emerged, particularly in the background of detection and remediation technologies, long-term ecotoxicological studies, the influence of climate change, and the integration of One Health frameworks for sustainable management.

9.1 Emerging Technologies for PAH Detection and Remediation

The remediation of PAH-contaminated environments is a critical area of research with promising emerging technologies. For instance, ex-situ remediation techniques, such as thermal desorption, have demonstrated effectiveness in reducing residual PAH concentrations in contaminated soils to levels below regulatory thresholds, highlighting their potential for widespread application in environmental management (Xia et al., 2013). Furthermore, the coupling of surfactant washing with photocatalytic processes has been shown to enhance the degradation of PAHs like phenanthrene and pyrene, indicating a synergistic approach that could be further explored for improved remediation outcomes (Yang et al., 2013).

Bioremediation strategies, particularly those utilizing filamentous fungi and bacteria, have also shown potential in degrading PAHs in contaminated sediments, as evidenced by studies that reveal the tolerance of some fungal species to PAHs, which could be harnessed for bioremediation efforts (Souza et al., 2017). However, the efficacy of these biological approaches often depends on the initial microbial diversity present in the soil, which can significantly influence the degradation rates of PAHs (Rheault et al., 2021). This suggests a need for further research into optimizing microbial communities for enhanced bioremediation.

Moreover, advanced technologies such as electrokinetic-assisted bioremediation and permeable reactive barriers are emerging as innovative solutions for toxicants such as PAH remediation. These methods not only enhance the mobility of contaminants but also facilitate the degradation processes by introducing specific microorganisms (WangCuiping et al., 2016; Ferreira et al., 2013). Despite the promise of these technologies, challenges still need to be addressed, particularly regarding their scalability and cost-effectiveness, necessitating comprehensive evaluations of their long-term sustainability and environmental impact (Saranya Kuppusamy et al., 2017).

9.2 Long-Term Ecotoxicological Studies and Risk Assessments

Long-term ecotoxicological studies are essential for understanding the chronic effects of PAH exposure on ecosystems and human health. Research indicates that PAHs can persist in the environment, leading to bioaccumulation and biomagnification in food webs, posing significant risks to wildlife and human populations (Cortés-Arriagada, 2021; Lou et al., 2022). For instance, the degradation products of PAHs, often more toxic than the parent compounds, stress the importance of assessing the initial contamination and the long-term ecological consequences of remediation efforts (Tian et al., 2021).

Risk assessments related to PAH exposure should incorporate a comprehensive understanding of their sources, pathways, and toxicological effects. Recent studies have highlighted the need for more robust methodologies for complex interactions between PAHs and other environmental stressors, such as trace metals and climate change (Sandhu et al., 2022; An et al., 2022). This integrated approach is crucial for developing effective management strategies protecting environmental and human health. Furthermore, the role of microbial communities in the degradation of PAHs and their subsequent ecological impacts warrants deeper investigation. Metagenomic analyses can provide insights into the functional potential of microbial communities in contaminated environments, facilitating the identification of key species involved in PAH degradation and their ecological roles (Sandhu et al., 2022). Such studies can inform the development of targeted bioremediation strategies that leverage natural microbial processes for effective PAH management.

9.3 The Role of Climate Change in PAH Distribution and Toxicity

Climate change is poised to alter the distribution and toxicity of PAHs in several ways. Temperature and precipitation patterns can influence PAHs' volatilization, degradation, and transport, potentially leading to increased concentrations in certain regions (Lou et al., 2022). Studies suggest that climate-induced alterations in atmospheric conditions may affect the degradation rates of PAHs, thereby impacting their persistence and bioavailability in the environment (Lou et al., 2022; Tian et al., 2021).

Moreover, the interaction between climate change and PAH contamination can exacerbate existing environmental health issues. As temperatures rise, the solubility and mobility of PAHs may increase, leading to more significant exposure risks for both terrestrial and aquatic organisms (Lou et al., 2022). This necessitates a reevaluation of current risk assessment frameworks to incorporate climate change projections and their potential impacts on PAH dynamics. Future research should focus on developing predictive models that integrate climate variables with PAH behavior in various ecosystems. Such models can aid in understanding how climate change may influence the fate of PAHs and inform adaptive management strategies to mitigate their impacts (Lou et al., 2022; Tian et al., 2021). Additionally, interdisciplinary approaches that combine environmental science, toxicology, and climate science will be essential for addressing the complex challenges posed by PAH contamination in a changing climate.

9.4 Advancing One Health Frameworks for Sustainable PAH Management

The One Health framework, which recognizes the interconnectedness of human, animal, and environmental health, offers a holistic approach to managing PAH contamination. Integrating this framework into PAH research and management strategies can enhance the effectiveness of remediation efforts and promote sustainable practices (Patel et al., 2020; Tang et al., 2023). For instance, understanding the pathways through which PAHs enter the food chain can inform public health initiatives to reduce exposure risks among vulnerable populations (Patel et al., 2020; Lou et al., 2022).

Furthermore, collaboration among stakeholders, including environmental scientists, public health officials, and community organizations, is crucial for developing comprehensive strategies that address PAH contamination at multiple levels. Engaging local communities in monitoring and remediation efforts can foster a sense of ownership and responsibility, ultimately leading to more effective and sustainable outcomes (Patel et al., 2020; Tang et al., 2023).

Research should also explore the socio-economic implications of PAH contamination and remediation efforts. Assessing the costs and benefits of various remediation technologies, alongside their potential impacts on community health and well-being, will be essential for guiding decision-making processes (Saranya Kuppusamy et al., 2017; Tang et al., 2023). By prioritizing equity and inclusivity in PAH management strategies, the One Health framework can contribute to more resilient and sustainable communities.

10. Conclusion

The multifaceted issue of PAHs in aquatic ecosystems necessitates an all-inclusive understanding of their sources, behavior, toxicological effects, and implications for human health and ecosystem services. PAHs originate from natural and anthropogenic sources, with volcanic activity and forest fires contributing to the natural background levels. At the same time, industrial discharges, urban runoff, oil spills, and atmospheric deposition represent significant human-induced pathways. These compounds enter aquatic environments through various routes, leading to widespread distribution in water, sediments, and biota. Once in these ecosystems, PAHs exhibit complex behaviors characterized by partitioning, biodegradation, photodegradation, and bioaccumulation. Temperature, salinity, and pH influence their persistence, complicating remediation efforts. The toxicological effects of PAHs on aquatic organisms are profound, with evidence of acute and chronic toxicity affecting fish, invertebrates, and amphibians. These effects extend to genotoxicity and carcinogenicity, impacting reproductive, developmental, and immune systems, critical for maintaining healthy populations. The implications for human health are equally concerning, as PAHs can bioaccumulate and biomagnify through the food chain, posing risks to those who consume contaminated seafood or rely on affected water sources. Vulnerable populations, including children and those with pre-existing health conditions, face heightened risks from exposure to these toxic compounds. Moreover, the impacts of PAHs extend to ecosystem services, disrupting water purification processes, fisheries, and biodiversity, which are vital for coastal communities' livelihoods and food security.

Addressing these challenges requires a One Health approach integrating monitoring and surveillance across human, animal, and environmental health sectors. Collaborative policies and community-based initiatives are essential for reducing PAH contamination and restoring ecosystems. Mitigation strategies, including source control, pollution prevention measures, and innovative remediation techniques, are critical for managing PAH levels in aquatic environments. Regulatory frameworks and international agreements need to be strengthened to ensure effective PAH management. Future research should focus on emerging technologies for remediation, long-term ecotoxicological studies, and the impacts of climate change on PAH distribution and toxicity.

Acknowldgement

The paper is part of the MSc thesis of the first author supervised by the second author.

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ARTICLE INFO	ABSTRACT
*Article No.:* 102024143 *Full Text:* PDF, PHP, HTML, EPUB, MP3 *DOI:10.15580/gjemps.2024.1.102024143*	Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) are a group of persistent organic pollutants with a complex chemical structure, predominantly derived from both natural and anthropogenic activities. The paper focuses on the overview of PAHs in aquatic ecosystems. The paper found that PAHs are widespread in aquatic ecosystems, arising from volcanic eruptions, forest fires, industrial discharges, urban runoff, oil spills, and atmospheric deposition. The persistence of PAHs in water bodies is influenced by factors such as temperature, salinity, and pH, which determine their partitioning, distribution, and bioaccumulation within sediments and aquatic biota. The study also found that the toxicological effects of PAHs on aquatic organisms are profound, causing acute and chronic toxicity in fish, while also leading to genotoxic and carcinogenic outcomes. These compounds can disrupt reproductive, developmental, and immune functions, with biomarkers of exposure evident in affected species. Human health is equally at risk, as PAHs bioaccumulate and biomagnify through the food chain, leading to exposure via contaminated seafood and water, with health risks ranging from carcinogenicity to endocrine disruption. From an ecosystem perspective, PAHs degrade critical services such as water quality, fisheries, and biodiversity, impacting the livelihoods and food security of coastal communities. A One Health approach, integrating human, animal, and environmental health sectors, is essential for monitoring and mitigating PAH pollution. Strategies include source control, bioremediation, regulatory frameworks, and community-based interventions. Therefore, addressing knowledge gaps, advancing ecotoxicological studies, and integrating One Health frameworks offer sustainable pathways to manage PAHs, mitigate their impacts, and protect aquatic ecosystems and public health.
*Accepted:* 05/11/2024 *Published:* 19/11/2024
Corresponding Author Sylvester Chibueze Izah (PhD)* *E-mail:* chivestizah@ gmail.com
*Keywords:* One Health Approach, Environmental Contaminants, Water Pollution, Human and Animal Health Impacts, Ecosystem Health

Category	Source	Characteristics
Natural	Biogenic Synthesis	Microbial decomposition of organic material and accumulation and decomposition in wetland ecosystems release PAHs into water.
	Geological Processes	PAHs from sedimentary rock and fossil fuel-rich regions enter water bodies through weathering, erosion, and volcanic events.
	Forest fires	Uncontrolled burning of organic matter
Anthropogenic	Industrial Activities	Oil spills in the aquatic ecosystem, petroleum refining, and coal mining, industries emit significant amounts of PAHs into water through atmospheric deposition or direct discharge. Also waste incineration, iron and steel production, asphalt production, and food processing (roasting, grilling, etc.) activities also release varying amounts of PAHs, which could end up in the surface water via direct runoff
	Stormwater Runoff	PAHs in the environment especially from areas with crude oil and hydrocarbon plants could be carried by rainwater into stormwater drainage systems, eventually reaching rivers, lakes, and coastal waterways.
	Production and use of creosote and coal-tar	Creosote and coal tar, both rich in PAHs, can be produced and used in the aquatic ecosystem through direct runoff from the processing environment into the surface water.

Figure 4: One Health Approaches to Addressing PAHs in Aquatic Ecosystems