Effects of Instruction in Short Stories on Junior Secondary Students’ Reading Comprehension Achievement in Jos South LGA, Plateau State Nigeria

1.1 Background to the Study

Reading is a process that involves decoding words to arrive at a meaning. Reading is an active process of constructing meaning of words. Reading with a purpose helps the reader to direct information towards a goal. The reasons for reading may vary, although the primary purpose of reading is to understand a text that is being read. It is a processing of constructing meaning of the text written by the writer. The meaning resides in the text. Hence, reading is an interaction involving three parties: the writer, the text and the reader. Reading is only adjudged to have taken place when the meaning put in the text by the writer is meaning taken from the text by the reader Opara and Daudu (2011).

The ability to comprehend written texts is a fundamental skill necessary for academic success and lifelong learning. Reading comprehension involves understanding, interpreting, and making meaning from written texts, which is essential across various subjects and contexts. As such, educators continuously seek effective instructional methods to enhance students' reading comprehension abilities. One such method is the use of short stories, which offer rich and engaging content that can captivate students' interest while providing opportunities for meaningful comprehension practice. This background of study explores the effects of instruction in short stories on junior secondary students' reading comprehension achievement.

Henderson and Buskist (2011) explained reading comprehension as when students construct meaning from what they have read or when students construct meaning from a certain text. They went on to explain more that reading comprehension is a multifaceted process influenced by various factors, including linguistic, cognitive, and socio-cultural elements. Linguistic factors include vocabulary knowledge, syntactic understanding, and familiarity with discourse structures. Cognitive factors encompass cognitive processes such as inference-making, prediction, summarization, and critical analysis, all of which contribute to understanding and interpreting text. Socio-cultural elements refer to the influence of students' background knowledge, cultural experiences, and socio-economic status on their comprehension abilities. For junior secondary students, who are transitioning from basic reading skills to more advanced comprehension tasks, developing proficient comprehension skills is critical for academic success across subjects. However, many students struggle with comprehending complex texts due to factors such as limited vocabulary, lack of background knowledge, and inadequate exposure to diverse texts. Educators must employ effective instructional strategies, such as explicit teaching of comprehension strategies, providing opportunities for practice, and fostering a supportive learning environment, to help students overcome these challenges and become proficient readers(Henderson and Buskist, 2011).Furthermore, according to Zimmerman and Huchin (2003), reading comprehension relies on two interconnected abilities: Word reading that is, being able to decode the words on the page and language comprehension (being able to understand the words and sentences). When we make sense of a text however, we do not just remember the exact words and phrases we read. Rather, we form a mental model of what the text describes by integrating the sense of the words and sentences into a meaningful whole. Good comprehension is vital if reading is to have a purposes, if a reader is to engage with and to learn from a text and ultimately if a reader is to enjoy what they are reading Routledge (2014). Many students face challenges in understanding complex texts, which can hinder their academic progress and overall literacy development. Educators must employ effective instructional strategies to support students in mastering this essential skill.

Reading has the considerable role in the language teaching to strengthen the skills which are acquired by the students in listening, speaking, and writing (Maxim, 2009: 139). Reading is simply an unbreakable habit, even an addiction, begun in childhood. Generally, many life-long readers freely pick up articles and books to gain information, pass the time enjoyably, and deepen their knowledge about themselves, the word, and its people. Reading skill allows them to read proficiently, learn effectively and to conceptualize. These skills are basically on earlier stages of reading development, including oral reading and reading fluency. Without developing these reading earlier skill, students must continually focus on decoding letters and words, rather than progressing to meaning and understanding. Reading skills are very important in the world of education because these activities will determine the quality and success of a student as a student in his studies. Many students are not confident to read English because some reason like not knowing letters, reading word for word, paraphrasing the wrong way, omitting letters or words, repeating words, using lip motion and moving the head, vocal difficulties, difficulty in analyzing word structure, not recognize the meaning of words in sentences and how to say it, not recognizing the main ideas and explanatory ideas, and generalizing. Due to these cases many teachers give more attention in teaching English and use various method, strategy, and media in order to improve students reading skill (Muhyin, 2022).

There are many methods that we can use to teach the students in reading. One of the method that used by the teacher in teaching English is short story. Short stories present an accessible and engaging format for teaching reading comprehension. They typically feature concise narratives with well-developed characters, settings, and plots, offering ample opportunities for students to practice comprehension strategies such as summarization, inference, prediction, and analysis (Goodman, 2007). They are advantageous for teaching reading comprehension due to their brevity, yet richness in content. Their concise narratives with well-developed characters, settings, and plots provide students with a manageable yet meaningful text to engage with. This format offers ample opportunities for students to practice various comprehension strategies such as summarization, inference, prediction, and analysis, which are essential for understanding and interpreting written texts. Furthermore, short stories encompass a wide range of genres, themes, and topics, catering to diverse interests and learning preferences among students. This versatility allows teachers to select stories that resonate with their students' backgrounds and experiences, thereby enhancing engagement and relevance. By immersing students in these rich literary experiences, educators not only cultivate a deeper appreciation for literature but also strengthen their reading comprehension skills. Through exploration and analysis of short stories, students develop critical thinking, analytical, and interpretive abilities, ultimately becoming more proficient readers.

The use of short-story in teaching reading comprehension should be aimed to encourage the students to use what they have previously learnt. Its use is to potentially improve reading ability, because the use of short story as a media can possibly make the students exchange the knowledge in learning process. Among the literary styles, the short story is an appealing one indeed and can therefore be employed for the purposes of language learning. The short stories can open up opportunities for extensive and intensive reading. A reading assignment asking students to work on a story over a short time without making extensively use of dictionary will significantly go up their reading speed and also inspire meaning guessing in reading. The use of short-story in Reading learning should be aimed to encourage the students to use what they have previously learnt. Story selection is indeed one of the most important roles of the teacher, since the lengths of short-story varies; choose a story short enough to handle within course hours (Hafiz et al, 2013). The shortness of the text is important for the students because they will see that they can read, understand and finish something in English, and it will give the students a feeling of achievement and self-confidence.

Research examining the impact of short story instruction on reading comprehension has shown encouraging outcomes. These studies have highlighted the effectiveness of employing systematic and explicit teaching methods that focus on comprehension strategies embedded within short stories. Such approaches involve breaking down complex reading tasks into manageable steps, providing explicit instruction on comprehension strategies such as summarization, questioning, predicting, and making connections, and offering guided practice opportunities to apply these strategies (Muhyidin, 2022). By scaffolding instruction in this way, teachers support students in developing metacognitive awareness, which involves understanding one's own thinking processes and employing strategic reading behaviors. These metacognitive skills are crucial for students to become independent and proficient readers capable of comprehending various types of texts. Moreover, integrating multimedia elements into short story instruction can further enhance student engagement and deepen their understanding of story elements and themes. By incorporating audio recordings, visuals, interactive activities, and other digital resources, teachers can appeal to different learning styles and preferences, provide additional context or background information, and create immersive learning experiences. These multimedia elements serve to enrich the reading experience, making it more interactive, dynamic, and accessible to students with diverse needs and abilities. Overall, research suggests that a well-designed short story instruction approach that incorporates systematic teaching of comprehension strategies and multimedia elements can significantly improve students' reading comprehension abilities and foster a deeper appreciation for literature.

In the Nigerian educational context, literacy rates and reading proficiency levels are critical indicators of academic success and socioeconomic development. However, challenges such as limited access to quality education, insufficient instructional resources, and linguistic diversity contribute to disparities in literacy attainment among students, especially at the junior secondary level. The implementation of the Universal Basic Education (UBE) program underscores the government's commitment to addressing these challenges by prioritizing the development of foundational skills, including literacy and numeracy, among students. As part of this initiative, there is a heightened focus on evidence-based instructional practices that can effectively support reading comprehension instruction in schools. Given the central role of reading comprehension in academic achievement and lifelong learning, investigating the efficacy of short story instruction becomes imperative. Short stories offer a versatile and engaging medium for teaching and practicing comprehension skills, aligning with the goals of the UBE program to improve literacy outcomes and equip students with essential skills for success in the modern world. Therefore, exploring the impact of short story instruction on junior secondary students' reading comprehension achievement is not only relevant but also essential for informing educational policies and practices aimed at enhancing literacy education in Nigeria.

This study aims to contribute to the existing literature by examining the impact of systematic short story instruction on junior secondary students' reading comprehension achievement. By employing a quasi-experimental design, the study will compare the reading comprehension performance of students who receive short story instruction with those who receive traditional instruction. Additionally, the study will explore students' perceptions of the instructional approach and their engagement with short stories as a learning tool. The findings of this study will provide valuable insights into the effectiveness of short story instruction in enhancing reading comprehension skills among junior secondary students and inform instructional practices aimed at improving literacy outcomes in Nigerian schools.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

Despite the recognized importance of reading comprehension skills for academic success and lifelong learning, junior secondary students in Jos South Local Government Area (LGA) of Plateau State often face challenges in achieving proficiency in this critical area. Limited access to quality instructional materials, inadequate teacher training in effective reading pedagogy, and a lack of targeted interventions tailored to students' needs may contribute to suboptimal reading comprehension outcomes. Furthermore, the existing literature on literacy interventions in Nigeria predominantly focuses on urban areas, leaving a gap in understanding the specific factors influencing reading comprehension achievement in rural settings like Jos South LGA. Therefore, there is a pressing need to investigate the potential effects of instruction in short stories on junior secondary students’ reading comprehension achievement in Jos South LGA to address this gap in research and inform evidence-based interventions aimed at improving literacy outcomes in the region.

1.3 Objectives of the Study

The aim of the study is to investigate the effects of instruction in short stories on junior secondary students’ reading comprehension achievement in Jos South Local Government Area, Plateau State. The specific objectives of the study are to:

· Determine the effects of instruction in short stories on JSS II students’ achievement in main idea identification.

· Ascertain the effects of instruction in short stories on JSS II students’ achievement in supporting details.

· Establish the effects of instruction in short stories on JSS II students’ achievement in literal comprehension.

· Determine the effects of instruction in short stories on JSS II students’ achievement in inferential comprehension.

· Establish the effects of instruction in short stories on JSS II students’ achievement in critical comprehension.

1.4 Research Questions

The following research questions are raised to guide the study:

· What is the pre-test post-test achievement mean score of the experimental and control groups in main idea identification?

· What is the pre-test post-test achievement mean score of the experimental and control groups in supporting details?

· What is the pre-test post-test achievement mean score of the experimental and control groups in literal comprehension?

· What is the pre-test post-test achievement mean score of the experimental and control groups in inferential comprehension?

· What is the pre-test post-test achievement mean score of the experimental and control groups in critical comprehension?

1.5 Hypotheses

This study seeks to test the following hypotheses:

· There is a significant difference in the mean achievement scores in main idea identification between JSS II students who receive instruction in short stories and those who do not.

· There is a significant difference in the mean achievement scores in supporting details between JSS II students who receive instruction in short stories and those who do not.

· There is a significant difference in the mean achievement scores in literal comprehension between JSS II students who receive instruction in short stories and those who do not.

· There is a significant difference in the mean achievement scores in inferential comprehension between JSS II students who receive instruction in short stories and those who do not.

· There is a significant difference in the mean achievement scores in critical comprehension between JSS II students who receive instruction in short stories and those who do not.

1.6 Significance of the Study

This study is significant to the following stakeholders;

Practical Significance: The practical significance of investigating the effects of instruction in short stories on junior secondary students’ reading comprehension achievement in Jos South LGA, Plateau State lies in its potential to inform targeted interventions that address the specific needs of students in rural settings. By understanding how short story instruction impacts reading comprehension outcomes, educators and policymakers can develop evidence-based strategies to improve literacy skills among junior secondary students in underserved areas. Such interventions could include curriculum adaptations, teacher training programs, and the provision of appropriate instructional materials tailored to the unique context of Jos South LGA. Ultimately, enhancing reading comprehension achievement in this region not only supports academic success but also fosters lifelong learning, critical thinking, and socio-economic development within the community.

Policy Significance: The policy significance of investigating the effects of instruction in short stories on junior secondary students’ reading comprehension achievement in Jos South LGA, Plateau State, lies in its potential to inform educational policies and interventions aimed at enhancing literacy outcomes in rural areas of Nigeria. By understanding the efficacy of short story instruction in improving reading comprehension skills among junior secondary students, policymakers can develop evidence-based strategies to address literacy challenges in similar contexts nationwide. This research can guide the formulation of targeted policies focusing on curriculum development, teacher training programs, and the provision of instructional materials tailored to the specific needs of rural schools, thereby fostering a conducive learning environment and ultimately contributing to the advancement of educational equity and quality across Nigeria's diverse educational landscape.

Theoretical Significance: The theoretical significance of investigating the effects of instruction in short stories on junior secondary students’ reading comprehension achievement lies in its potential to contribute to the existing body of knowledge in educational psychology and literacy instruction. By exploring how the use of short stories impacts students’ reading comprehension skills, particularly in a rural context like Jos South LGA, the study can offer valuable insights into effective instructional strategies for enhancing literacy outcomes among adolescent learners. Additionally, the research can help validate or refine existing theories of reading comprehension and instructional practices, shedding light on the mechanisms through which short story instruction influences students’ comprehension abilities. This theoretical framework can inform educators, curriculum developers, and policymakers in designing evidence-based interventions and educational programs aimed at fostering reading proficiency and academic success among junior secondary students, thereby advancing the broader goals of educational equity and literacy development.

1.7 Theoretical/Conceptual Review

1.7.1 Schema Theory

Schema Theory, proposed by British psychologist Frederic Bartlett in the 1930s and further developed by cognitive psychologists such as Rumelhart in the 1980s, is highly relevant to students' reading comprehension achievement. This theory suggests that individuals possess mental frameworks or schemas that organize their knowledge and experiences (Schimdt, 1975). According to Jing Yang (2023) in his book ‘The use of Schema Theory in teaching of reading comprehension’ stated that when students engage in reading, they use these schemas to interpret and understand the text. In the context of reading comprehension achievement, Schema Theory emphasizes the crucial role of prior knowledge and experiences in comprehending written texts. Students bring their existing schemas to the reading process, which shape how they interpret and make meaning of the text. For example, a student who has a strong schema related to animals may better understand and retain information from a passage about wildlife than a student who lacks such prior knowledge. Moreover, Schema Theory explains how readers actively engage in processes such as prediction, inference-making, and elaboration to fill in gaps and make connections between the text and their existing schemas. For instance, when encountering unfamiliar vocabulary or concepts, students may draw upon their background knowledge to make educated guesses about the meaning or significance of the text. However, Schema Theory also highlights the potential challenges that students may face in comprehension when their schemas are incomplete, inaccurate, or mismatched with the text (Yang, 2023). In such cases, students may struggle to integrate new information into their existing schemas, leading to difficulties in understanding and retaining the material.

Educators can leverage Schema Theory to support students' reading comprehension achievement in several ways:

Activating Prior Knowledge: Teachers can activate students' prior knowledge by previewing key concepts, providing background information, or facilitating class discussions related to the topic before reading.

Building Background Knowledge: Educators can scaffold students' comprehension by gradually building their background knowledge through explicit instruction, inquiry-based learning, and exposure to diverse texts and experiences.

Making Connections: Teachers can help students make connections between the text and their existing schemas by prompting them to relate the material to their own experiences, other texts, or real-world examples.

Explicit Instruction: Educators can provide explicit instruction on comprehension strategies such as prediction, summarization, questioning, and visualization, which help students activate, apply, and extend their schemas during reading.

By understanding and applying Schema Theory, educators can effectively support students' reading comprehension achievement by harnessing the power of prior knowledge and facilitating meaningful connections between students' schemas and the text.

1.7.2 Dual Coding Theory

Dual Coding Theory, proposed by Allan Paivio in the 1970s, posits that individual’s process information through two distinct but interconnected channels: verbal and visual. According to this theory, when individuals encounter information, they can encode it verbally (through language) or visually (through imagery). Both channels contribute to the overall cognitive representation of the information, enhancing comprehension and memory retention. According to Kaestner (2016) book; ‘Imagery and Text a Dual Coding Theory of Reading and Writing’, Dual Coding Theory has significant implications for students' reading comprehension achievement, as it underscores the importance of integrating both verbal and visual elements in instructional materials and strategies. In the context of reading comprehension, Dual Coding Theory suggests that texts accompanied by visual representations (such as diagrams, illustrations, or multimedia) can facilitate deeper understanding and retention compared to text-only materials (Kaestner, 2016). When students engage with text accompanied by relevant visuals, they activate both verbal and visual processing pathways, leading to a richer cognitive representation of the information. For example, when reading a science textbook about the water cycle, students who also view a diagram illustrating the process are more likely to grasp the concepts and connections between different stages of the cycle.

Furthermore, Dual Coding Theory emphasizes the role of mental imagery in comprehension. As students read, they may create mental images that correspond to the content of the text, effectively "dual coding" the information through both verbal and visual channels. These mental images serve as cognitive anchors that help students organize and integrate the textual information, making it more coherent and memorable. Educators can leverage Dual Coding Theory to design instruction that promotes reading comprehension achievement. Strategies such as using graphic organizers, incorporating multimedia resources, and encouraging students to create visual representations of textual content (such as concept maps or sketches) can enhance comprehension by engaging both verbal and visual processing pathways (Lixian, 2023). Additionally, providing explicit instruction on how to generate mental imagery while reading can help students develop this skill and deepen their comprehension of complex texts. Overall, Dual Coding Theory highlights the importance of incorporating visual elements and mental imagery into reading instruction to support students' comprehension achievement (Paivio, 1991). By engaging both verbal and visual processing channels, educators can create more effective learning experiences that facilitate deeper understanding and retention of textual information.

1.8 Scope of the Study

This research work is limited to the effects of short stories on reading instruction on Junior Secondary School Students’ Achievement in reading comprehension in Jos South LGA, Plateau. It is particularly limited to reading comprehension and the five comprehension approaches; main idea identification, supporting details, literal, inferential and critical approaches to comprehension. The study focused on English Comprehension reading skills and the researcher will restrict the study to public secondary schools in Jos South Local Government Area Plateau state alone. The work is centered on students of JSS 2 (Junior Secondary School Students) only, using some selected reading materials.

1.9 Operational Definition of Terms

The following terms would be defined based on how they have been used in this study:

Comprehension: Comprehension is the process of understanding and interpreting information that is read or heard, involving the ability to grasp the meaning, infer relationships, and make connections between ideas presented in text or speech.

Effects: Effects refer to the outcomes or consequences resulting from a particular action, event, or phenomenon, which can manifest in various ways and may include changes, impacts, or influences on individuals, systems, or environments.

Prose: Prose refers to written or spoken language that does not adhere to a specific poetic structure, characterized by its natural flow of words, sentences, and paragraphs, commonly found in novels, essays, articles, and everyday communication.

Reading: Reading is the cognitive process of decoding written symbols to derive meaning, comprehension, and understanding from text, facilitating communication, knowledge acquisition, and cognitive development.

Short stories: Short stories are brief, fictional narratives that typically focus on a single event or character, featuring concise plots and character development within a limited word count, often ranging from a few hundred to a few thousand words.

LITERATURE REVIEW

This chapter presents the review of literature related to this study. The review is organized under the following sub headings; Concept and nature of the reading process, reading comprehension, approaches to teaching reading comprehension, methods of teaching reading skills, assessment of reading comprehension, challenges of reading comprehension, assessment of reading comprehension, using short stories to teach reading comprehension, review of empirical studies and summary of literature review.

2.1 Concept and Nature of the Reading Process

The reading process refers to the complex cognitive and linguistic processes involved in understanding written text (Jindal, 2017). Reading is not simply decoding words on a page but rather a dynamic and interactive process that requires the integration of various skills and strategies. It involves decoding text (converting written symbols into spoken language), understanding vocabulary and syntax, making connections between ideas, and drawing inferences based on prior knowledge and textual cues. Additionally, reading comprehension relies on higher-order cognitive processes such as critical thinking, analysis, and evaluation. According Kucer (2014) in his article ‘The Reading Process’, the reading process is influenced by factors such as the reader's background knowledge, experiences, and motivation, as well as the characteristics of the text itself, including its content, structure, and language complexity. Understanding the concept and nature of the reading process is essential for educators and researchers in developing effective reading instruction and interventions to support readers' development and comprehension skills.

The study of the reading process has evolved over centuries, reflecting advancements in cognitive psychology, linguistics, education, and technology. Ancient civilizations, such as the Egyptians and Mesopotamians, developed early writing systems around 3200 BCE, leading to the emergence of reading as a means of communication and knowledge dissemination (Horowitz-Kraus, 2016). In the Middle Ages, reading was primarily limited to religious texts, with literacy largely confined to the clergy and elite classes. The modern understanding of the reading process began to emerge during the 20th century with the advent of psychological research and educational theories. Pioneering work by psychologists such as Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky laid the foundation for understanding cognitive development and the role of language in learning (Dreher, 2016). In the 1960s and 1970s, the cognitive revolution led to new insights into reading as an active process of constructing meaning from text, rather than simply decoding words. The 1980s saw the rise of influential theories such as schema theory, which emphasized the role of prior knowledge in comprehension, and the whole language approach, which advocated for a holistic approach to reading instruction (Kucer, 2014). Concurrently, advances in technology, such as the development of digital texts and computer-based learning tools, reshaped how reading is taught and studied.

Reading is a process that involves interaction between the reader and the text. It is a communicative process between the reader and writer. The purpose of this interaction is for the reader to understand what has been written; this means that reading without comprehension is meaningless and waste of effort. Reading is therefore a complex process of constructing meaning from a written text, which requires the co-ordination of a number of interrelated sources of information. The ability to read well is not a mysterious gift granted to special people; rather it is a skill acquired through hard work and experience. Seely (2014), reveals the interconnectivity between writing and reading in the following words: Whether we are in the role of reader or writer, we make sense either of or with print-and to make sense, we activate our prior knowledge of the topic and the genre, our personal experiences, our reader/writer-based expectations as well as our culturally based expectations, and our contextual frames of reference.

Experienced readers and writers thus are active, not passive participants in the activities of reading and writing respectively. They interact with language, making movies in their heads…’ Smith (2000) also notes that learning to read as a writer is a crucial step even as one is to write as a writer. He says: To read like a writer, we engage vicariously with what the author is writing. We anticipate what the author is writing, so that the author is in effect writing on behalf, not simply showing how something is done but doing it with us. The learner learns through reading like a writer to write like a writer (p. 14). A good reader is also expected to pass judgment on the validity of the discourse. That is, when he reads, he is expected to decide whether what he read is true or false, correct or incorrect, relevant or irrelevant, logical or illogical. This type of reading is called critical or evaluative reading.

Today, research on the reading process continues to evolve, with a focus on topics such as literacy development, reading fluency, comprehension strategies, and the impact of digital media on reading habits. Collaborative interdisciplinary efforts are ongoing to deepen our understanding of the reading process and inform evidence-based practices in literacy education.

2.1.1 Components of Reading process

The reading process comprises essential components: decoding (converting symbols to speech), fluency (reading smoothly and accurately), vocabulary (understanding word meanings), and comprehension (understanding and interpreting text). These components interact dynamically to facilitate understanding, with strong skills in each area contributing to proficient reading comprehension. Understanding the components of the reading process is crucial for educators and learners alike to effectively develop and enhance reading skills.

Decoding (converting symbols to speech): Decoding is a fundamental component of the reading process, involving the ability to convert written symbols, such as letters and words, into spoken language or mental representations of words (Wolfe, 1994). This skill enables readers to recognize and pronounce words accurately as they encounter them in written texts. Decoding typically begins with the recognition of individual letters and their corresponding sounds, known as phonemic awareness, which forms the basis for phonics instruction in early literacy development. As readers progress, they learn to apply phonetic rules and patterns to decode more complex words and develop automaticity in word recognition. Effective decoding skills are essential for fluent reading and comprehension, as they enable readers to access the meaning of texts efficiently. When readers can decode words accurately and quickly, they can focus their cognitive resources on understanding the meaning of the text rather than struggling with word recognition. Decoding skills also play a critical role in word-level reading fluency, allowing readers to read text smoothly and with appropriate speed and accuracy. While decoding is foundational to the reading process, it is just one component of reading proficiency, which also includes vocabulary knowledge, comprehension strategies, and fluency (Kumar et al, 2018). Consequently, effective reading instruction emphasizes the development of decoding skills alongside other components to support readers' overall literacy development.

Fluency (reading smoothly and accurately): Fluency is a crucial component of the reading process, referring to the ability to read text smoothly, accurately, and with appropriate speed and expression. Fluent readers demonstrate proficiency in decoding words quickly and automatically, allowing them to focus more on understanding the meaning of the text rather than on word recognition (Jessica et al, 2014). Fluent reading is characterized by a natural, effortless flow of words, with pauses and hesitations minimized, resulting in a more engaging and enjoyable reading experience. Achieving fluency requires repeated practice and exposure to texts of varying complexity, as well as the development of automaticity in recognizing and processing common sight words and word patterns. Furthermore, fluency plays a vital role in supporting reading comprehension, as it enables readers to allocate cognitive resources more efficiently to higher-level comprehension processes (Kucer, 2014). Fluent readers are better able to make connections between ideas, monitor their comprehension, and engage in critical thinking and analysis while reading. They also demonstrate greater flexibility in adjusting their reading rate and expression to match the content and tone of the text. Therefore, fluency development is an essential goal of reading instruction, with educators employing various strategies and interventions, such as repeated readings, modeling, and guided oral reading, to help students develop fluency skills and become more proficient readers (Kent & Wanzek, 2016).

Vocabulary (understanding word meanings): The vocabulary component of the reading process is fundamental to comprehension and understanding. Vocabulary refers to the words that individuals know and understand in a language (Bedo et al, 2014). When readers encounter unfamiliar words while reading, their comprehension can be hindered. Therefore, developing a robust vocabulary is essential for effective reading comprehension. Readers with a rich and varied vocabulary have a greater ability to decipher the meaning of words in context, allowing them to comprehend texts more easily and accurately (Kent &Wanzek, 2016). Furthermore, a strong vocabulary enables readers to make connections between words, concepts, and ideas, facilitating deeper understanding and interpretation of texts. Vocabulary development occurs through various means, including exposure to spoken language, reading, and explicit instruction. Readers acquire new words through context clues, such as surrounding words or sentences that provide hints about the meaning of unfamiliar vocabulary. Additionally, direct instruction in vocabulary can enhance word learning by teaching students the meanings of specific words, as well as strategies for determining word meanings independently. Effective vocabulary instruction encompasses a range of activities, including word learning games, word mapping exercises, and explicit teaching of word roots, prefixes, and suffixes. By fostering vocabulary development, educators empower students to become proficient readers who can comprehend and engage with a wide range of texts across different subject areas.

Comprehension (understanding and interpreting text): Comprehension, a central component of the reading process, refers to the ability to understand and interpret the meaning of written text. It involves a complex interplay of cognitive processes, including making connections, drawing inferences, synthesizing information, and evaluating the author's purpose and perspective. According Boanerges (2018) in ‘Reading: An overview prior to reading comprehension’ effective comprehension requires readers to actively engage with the text, employing strategies such as predicting, questioning, summarizing, and monitoring understanding. By constructing mental representations of the text and integrating new information with prior knowledge and experiences, readers can derive deeper meaning from the text and extract key ideas and themes. Furthermore, comprehension is a multifaceted process influenced by various factors, including the reader's background knowledge, vocabulary, cognitive skills, and motivation, as well as the characteristics of the text itself, such as its content, structure, and language complexity. Readers' ability to comprehend text can vary depending on their familiarity with the topic, the clarity of the writing, and the coherence of the ideas presented (Logan &Schatschneider, 2014). Educators play a crucial role in fostering comprehension skills by providing explicit instruction in comprehension strategies, offering opportunities for meaningful discussion and reflection, and selecting texts that are engaging, relevant, and accessible to students' diverse backgrounds and interests (Boanerges, 2018). Ultimately, developing strong comprehension skills is essential for academic success, critical thinking, and lifelong learning.

2.2 Reading Comprehension

Reading comprehension is a fundamental skill that plays a crucial role in academic success, professional achievement, and lifelong learning (Talmor & Berant, 2019). It refers to the ability to understand, interpret, and analyze written text effectively, extracting meaning and synthesizing information to construct coherent and insightful interpretations. Comprehension is the process of making sense of word, sentence and connected text (Beek, 2020). Reading comprehension involves a complex interplay of cognitive processes, including decoding words, understanding vocabulary and syntax, making inferences, drawing connections, and evaluating the author's purpose and perspective. It is not merely about recognizing words on a page but rather about actively engaging with the text, critically evaluating its content, and deriving deeper insights.

The history of reading comprehension dates back to ancient civilizations, where reading involved basic decoding of written symbols (Hu & Nation, 2020). Over time, reading comprehension evolved with the development of literacy, writing systems, and educational practices. In the Middle Ages, reading comprehension was primarily focused on religious texts and memorization. The modern understanding of reading comprehension emerged in the 20th century, with advancements in psychology, linguistics, and education shaping our understanding of cognitive processes involved in understanding written text. Today, reading comprehension is recognized as a crucial skill for academic success, professional achievement, and lifelong learning.

Furthermore, reading comprehension is not a passive process but an interactive and recursive one, shaped by the reader's background knowledge, experiences, motivations, and cultural perspectives (Oleksiietal, 2020). Effective readers employ a variety of strategies to enhance their comprehension, such as previewing text, asking questions, summarizing information, and monitoring understanding. Additionally, reading comprehension is influenced by various factors, including the characteristics of the text (e.g., complexity, genre, structure), the reader's proficiency level, and the context in which reading occurs (e.g., purpose, audience, environment). As such, developing strong reading comprehension skills is essential for academic achievement across disciplines, professional success in diverse fields, and informed participation in civic and democratic processes.

It is appropriate with McNamara (2007:28) who states that comprehension is the interpretation of the information in the text, the use of prior knowledge to interpret this information and ultimately, the construction of a coherent representation or picture in the reader’s mind of what the text is about. Based on Klingner (2007:2) reading comprehension is the process of constructing meaning by coordinating a number of difficult processes that consist of word reading, word and world knowledge, and fluency. From the declaration above, it can be concluded that reading comprehension is a kind of skill in reading which make the readers can create meaning from written text which make them able to understand the information in it. McNamara (2007:3) states that reading is an extraordinary achievement when one considers the number of levels and components that must be mastered. It means that when the reader read, the reader must understand and master some components of the text.

Comprehension entails three elements; the reader who is performing the comprehending, the text which is to be comprehended, and the activity in which comprehension is a part. Furthermore, these three elements will influence each other in order to create a good comprehension for students or readers. Klingner et al (2007:8) explains that reading comprehension is multicomponent, highly complex process that involves many interactions between readers and what readers bring to the text (previous knowledge, strategy use) as well as variables related to the text itself (interest in text, understanding of text types). Similarly, McNamara (2007:111) says that reading comprehension is a product of complex interactions between the properties of the text and what readers bring to the reading situation. This understanding comes from the interaction between the word that are written and how readers trigger knowledge outside the text.

2.2.1 Reading comprehension problems

Reading comprehension problems can arise from various factors, impacting an individual's ability to understand and interpret written text effectively. Some common issues include:

Decoding difficulties: Difficulty in recognizing and sounding out words can impede comprehension, as readers may struggle to understand the text fluently (Guenin, 2018). Decoding difficulties represent a significant reading comprehension problem characterized by challenges in accurately recognizing and sounding out words. Individuals with decoding difficulties may struggle with phonological awareness, the ability to recognize and manipulate sounds in spoken language, making it challenging to connect sounds to corresponding letters and decode written words. These difficulties can manifest as hesitations, errors, or omissions while reading, leading to disruptions in fluency and comprehension. For example, struggling readers may rely on guessing or skipping words, resulting in incomplete or inaccurate understanding of the text. According to Setianingsih (2020), in his article ‘Assessment to improve reading comprehension’, decoding difficulties can impede reading comprehension by diverting cognitive resources away from higher-level comprehension processes, such as making inferences or synthesizing information, as readers expend considerable effort on decoding individual words, decoding difficulties can have cascading effects on reading comprehension across different levels of text complexity. As reading materials become more challenging, individuals with decoding difficulties may encounter unfamiliar or multisyllabic words that exceed their decoding skills, further exacerbating comprehension problems (Hubbard, 2019). Additionally, decoding difficulties can impact reading fluency, the ability to read text smoothly and efficiently, leading to slower reading rates and decreased engagement with the text. Addressing decoding difficulties often requires targeted interventions focused on phonics instruction, phonological awareness training, and building automaticity in word recognition to enhance reading fluency and comprehension (Setianingsih, 2020). By addressing decoding difficulties early and providing appropriate support, individuals can develop more robust decoding skills and improve their overall reading comprehension abilities.

Limited vocabulary: Insufficient knowledge of words and their meanings can hinder comprehension, as readers may struggle to understand unfamiliar terms or concepts. Limited vocabulary can pose significant challenges to reading comprehension, as it impedes readers' ability to fully understand and engage with written text (Azhari, 2020). When readers encounter unfamiliar words or phrases, they may struggle to grasp the meaning of the text, leading to confusion and frustration. Without a robust vocabulary, readers may have difficulty making connections between words and concepts, inhibiting their ability to comprehend the overall message and infer the author's intended meaning (Safitri et al, 2023). Moreover, limited vocabulary can hinder readers' ability to discern shades of meaning, identify key ideas, and draw inferences, as they may lack the necessary lexical resources to navigate complex texts effectively.

Addressing limited vocabulary as a reading comprehension problem requires targeted interventions aimed at expanding readers' word knowledge and understanding (Kediri et al, 2019). Teachers and educators can provide explicit instruction in vocabulary development, introducing students to new words through context-rich activities, word maps, and mnemonic devices. Additionally, fostering a culture of reading and exposure to a wide range of texts can help students encounter new words in different contexts, reinforcing their understanding and retention. Encouraging students to use strategies such as context clues, word analysis, and word learning strategies can empower them to independently navigate unfamiliar vocabulary and enhance their overall reading comprehension skills.

Ineffective comprehension strategies: Ineffective comprehension strategies refer to approaches or techniques that readers employ to understand written text but fail to produce meaningful comprehension outcomes (Hu & Nation, 2020). Readers may lack strategies for actively engaging with the text, such as summarizing, questioning, and making predictions, which can hinder their ability to extract meaning and make connections. According to Everett (2020) in the book ‘Comprehension strategies’, one common ineffective strategy is passive reading, where readers simply read through the text without actively engaging with the content. This approach can lead to surface-level understanding and difficulty in retaining information or making connections between ideas (Everett, 2020). Another ineffective strategy is over-reliance on rote memorization or word-by-word decoding, which may hinder readers from grasping the broader meaning or main ideas of the text. Additionally, readers may struggle with comprehension when they employ rigid or inflexible strategies that do not adapt to different types of texts or reading contexts, limiting their ability to effectively navigate complex or unfamiliar content.

Ineffective comprehension strategies can also manifest as a lack of metacognitive awareness, where readers fail to monitor their understanding or adjust their strategies when faced with comprehension challenges. For instance, readers may continue reading without pausing to clarify confusing passages or reflect on their understanding of the text. Additionally, readers may employ ineffective strategies such as guessing or skimming without actively engaging in deeper comprehension processes such as summarizing, questioning, or synthesizing information. Addressing ineffective comprehension strategies requires explicit instruction in metacognitive skills, such as self-monitoring and self-regulation, as well as providing opportunities for guided practice and feedback to help readers develop more effective approaches to comprehending written text (Lia & Wang, 2018).

Poor reading fluency: Poor reading fluency poses a significant challenge to reading comprehension, as it hinders the smooth and efficient processing of written text (Jacobson et al, 013). Slow or choppy reading can hinder comprehension, as readers may focus more on decoding words than on understanding the meaning of the text. When individuals struggle with reading fluency, they may read slowly, hesitantly, or with frequent pauses, which can disrupt the flow of the text and impede their ability to extract meaning. Slow or choppy reading can make it difficult for readers to maintain focus and attention, as they may become frustrated or fatigued by the effort required to decode words (Mardhiah& Ismail, 2023). As a result, readers may struggle to comprehend the overall message or main ideas of the text, as their attention is often consumed by the mechanics of reading rather than the content itself.

According to Cogo-Moreira et al (2023) in ‘cut-off point, sensitivity and specificity for screening the reading fluency in children’, poor reading fluency can limit readers' capacity to engage in higher-order cognitive processes essential for comprehension, such as making connections, drawing inferences, and synthesizing information. When individuals spend a significant amount of mental energy on decoding words or struggling to read fluently, they have fewer cognitive resources available to devote to understanding the text deeply (Cogo-Moreira et al, 2023). As a result, comprehension may suffer, with readers missing important details, failing to grasp the overall structure or argument of the text, or struggling to make sense of complex ideas. Addressing poor reading fluency is essential for improving reading comprehension, as fluent reading lays the foundation for effective comprehension by enabling readers to focus their attention on extracting meaning from the text rather than on decoding individual words.

2.2.2 Assessment of reading comprehension

Assessment of reading comprehension refers to the systematic evaluation of an individual's ability to understand and interpret written text effectively (Talmor&Berant, 2019). This process involves assessing various components of reading comprehension, including literal understanding (identifying facts and details), inferential comprehension (making inferences and drawing conclusions), and evaluative comprehension (analyzing and synthesizing information). According Setianingsih (2020) in ‘Assessment to improve reading comprehension’ assessments of reading comprehension can take various forms, such as standardized tests, informal reading inventories, teacher-created assessments, or performance tasks. These assessments are designed to measure different aspects of reading comprehension skills, including vocabulary knowledge, comprehension strategies, fluency, and metacognitive awareness (Setianingsih, 2020). It is important for assessments of reading comprehension to be valid, reliable, and aligned with instructional goals and objectives to ensure that they provide accurate and meaningful information about a reader's abilities. Overall, assessment of reading comprehension aims to identify strengths and areas for growth, guide instructional planning, and monitor progress over time to support students' development as proficient readers (Guenin, 2018).

Reading comprehension can be assessed through various methods, each focusing on different aspects of a reader's understanding of a text. Some common assessment techniques include:

Comprehension Questions: Comprehension questions are a widely used assessment technique in reading comprehension that aims to evaluate a reader's understanding of a text's content, structure, and meaning (Loyd & Steele, 1986). These questions can vary in complexity and focus, ranging from literal comprehension to inferential understanding. Literal comprehension questions typically assess a reader's ability to recall factual information, main ideas, and details explicitly stated in the text (Soru & Turu, 2006). For example, questions may ask about specific events, characters, or details mentioned in the passage. In contrast, inferential comprehension questions require readers to draw conclusions, make predictions, or analyze implicit meanings based on information provided in the text. These questions prompt readers to think critically and apply higher-order thinking skills to interpret and analyze the text beyond the surface level. By asking questions that require readers to make connections, infer motives, or evaluate perspectives, inferential comprehension questions assess a reader's ability to read between the lines and understand the deeper implications and nuances of the text (Long & Aldersley, 1982). Overall, comprehension questions provide valuable insight into a reader's ability to engage with and comprehend a text effectively. They assess not only a reader's ability to grasp the literal meaning of a text but also their capacity to think critically, infer meaning, and make connections between ideas, ultimately promoting deeper comprehension and understanding.

Retellings or Summaries: Retellings or summaries are effective reading comprehension assessment techniques that require readers to articulate their understanding of a text by reconstructing its key points and main ideas in their own words (Spache & Spache, 1969). Asking readers to retell or summarize a text in their own words can assess their ability to identify and prioritize key information, as well as their understanding of the overall structure and organization of the text. This assessment method encourages readers to engage deeply with the text, identify essential information, and prioritize significant details. By retelling or summarizing a text, readers demonstrate their comprehension of the text's structure, organization, and main themes, as well as their ability to extract relevant information and synthesize it into a coherent narrative. Additionally, retellings or summaries provide insight into readers' comprehension processes, allowing educators to assess their understanding of explicit and implicit meanings, as well as their ability to make connections between different parts of the text. This assessment technique can be adapted to various types of texts, including narratives, informational texts, and academic articles, making it a versatile tool for evaluating reading comprehension across different genres and content areas (Bovee, 1972). Furthermore, retellings or summaries can be used formatively to provide feedback to readers, identify areas for improvement, and guide further instruction and practice in developing comprehension skills.

Graphic Organizers: Graphic organizers are visual tools used to represent and organize information from a text in a structured and meaningful way. They serve as a reading comprehension assessment technique by providing readers with a framework to organize their thoughts, ideas, and understanding of a text (Matthes, 1972). Graphic organizers come in various formats, such as concept maps, story maps, timelines, Venn diagrams, and charts, each tailored to the specific goals and objectives of the assessment. One of the key benefits of graphic organizers is their ability to facilitate the identification of relationships, connections, and patterns within a text. By visually mapping out main ideas, details, and supporting evidence, readers can gain a clearer understanding of the structure and organization of the text, as well as the relationships between different elements (Jeynes & Littell, 2000). This process encourages active engagement with the text and promotes deeper comprehension.

Moreover, graphic organizers support different learning styles and preferences, allowing readers to choose the format that best suits their individual needs and preferences (Stauffer, 1970, p. 24). They can be particularly beneficial for visual learners who may struggle with traditional text-based assessments. Additionally, graphic organizers can be adapted to accommodate diverse texts and reading materials, making them versatile tools for assessing comprehension across various genres, topics, and grade levels. Overall, graphic organizers serve as effective assessment tools that enhance reading comprehension by promoting organization, analysis, and synthesis of textual information in a visually engaging format.

Performance Tasks: Performance tasks are reading comprehension assessment techniques that involve real-world activities or projects designed to evaluate a reader's ability to apply their comprehension skills in practical contexts (Talmor & Berant, 2019). Unlike traditional assessment methods that focus solely on answering questions or completing exercises, performance tasks require readers to demonstrate their understanding of a text through meaningful and authentic tasks. These tasks can vary widely in format and complexity, ranging from writing summaries or analyses to creating presentations, participating in debates or discussions, or even designing and implementing projects based on the content of the text. One of the key advantages of performance tasks is their ability to assess higher-order thinking skills and transferability of knowledge. By engaging readers in activities that mirror real-world situations, performance tasks require them to draw upon their comprehension abilities in diverse ways, such as analyzing information, synthesizing ideas, making connections, and applying concepts to new contexts (Boanerges, 2018). Additionally, performance tasks provide opportunities for readers to demonstrate creativity, critical thinking, and problem-solving skills, as they are tasked with applying their understanding of the text to generate original ideas or solutions. Overall, performance tasks offer a holistic approach to assessing reading comprehension, allowing educators to evaluate not only what readers know but also how effectively they can apply their knowledge in authentic situations.

2.2.3 Factors that Influence Reading Comprehension

Some of the most important factors that influence reading comprehension include:

Vocabulary Knowledge: Vocabulary knowledge plays a crucial role in reading comprehension by providing readers with the necessary linguistic tools to understand the meaning of words encountered in a text (Tarnofsky, 2002). A robust vocabulary encompasses not only the ability to recognize and define individual words but also an understanding of their various nuances, connotations, and usage within different contexts. Readers with a diverse and extensive vocabulary are better equipped to decipher unfamiliar words through their knowledge of prefixes, suffixes, roots, and word patterns, enabling them to infer meanings from context and make connections between words and ideas within the text. Moreover, vocabulary knowledge facilitates the comprehension of complex texts by allowing readers to grasp the subtleties of language, identify key concepts, and discern shades of meaning, thus enhancing their overall understanding of the text. Furthermore, vocabulary knowledge serves as a foundation for effective communication and expression, both in written and oral forms. A strong vocabulary not only aids comprehension but also empowers readers to articulate their thoughts, ideas, and emotions more precisely and persuasively (Shehu, 2015). As readers encounter unfamiliar words in texts, they expand their vocabulary through exposure, practice, and intentional vocabulary instruction. Educators play a crucial role in fostering vocabulary development by providing opportunities for explicit vocabulary instruction, teaching word-learning strategies, and encouraging students to engage with a wide range of texts across different genres and subject areas (Carlson et al, 2022). Ultimately, a rich vocabulary not only enhances reading comprehension but also cultivates language proficiency and communication skills essential for academic success and lifelong learning.

Background Knowledge: Background knowledge refers to the wealth of information, experiences, and understanding that individuals bring to their reading. It encompasses everything from personal experiences to academic knowledge and cultural understandings. In the context of reading comprehension, background knowledge plays a crucial role in shaping how readers interpret and make sense of a text (Dowker, 2016). Readers who possess relevant background knowledge related to the topic or subject matter of the text are better equipped to comprehend the material. This is because they can draw upon their existing knowledge and schema to make connections, infer meanings, and contextualize new information within their understanding of the world. For example, a reader who is familiar with the concept of climate change will have an easier time comprehending a scientific article discussing its causes and effects compared to someone with limited knowledge on the topic. Moreover, background knowledge is not static but dynamic, continually evolving and expanding through new experiences and learning opportunities (Carlson et al, 2022). Readers actively engage with text by drawing upon their background knowledge to make predictions, ask questions, and make inferences, which in turn enhances their comprehension. However, it is essential to recognize that background knowledge can also vary widely among individuals, depending on factors such as age, education, cultural background, and personal experiences. Therefore, educators must consider the diverse backgrounds and experiences of their students when teaching reading comprehension strategies, providing opportunities for all learners to build and activate their background knowledge to support their understanding of the text.

Reading Fluency: Reading fluency is a critical component of reading comprehension that encompasses the ability to read text smoothly, accurately, and with appropriate expression (Kim et al, 2021). Fluent readers demonstrate proficiency in decoding words, recognizing sight words, and navigating sentence structures effortlessly, allowing them to focus more on understanding the meaning of the text rather than struggling with word recognition. Fluency is characterized by a steady pace of reading, minimal errors, and the ability to maintain rhythm and intonation, which enhances the flow of reading and promotes engagement with the material (Altani et al, 2020). Additionally, fluent readers exhibit automaticity in word recognition, meaning that they can identify and process words quickly and efficiently, enabling them to allocate cognitive resources to higher-order comprehension processes, such as making connections, drawing inferences, and synthesizing information. Moreover, reading fluency is closely linked to reading comprehension, as it serves as a foundation upon which comprehension skills are built. Fluent readers are better equipped to comprehend and retain the content of the text because they can devote more mental energy to understanding the meaning of the words and sentences rather than decoding individual words. Improved fluency leads to increased comprehension by facilitating the integration of information across sentences and paragraphs, enabling readers to extract key ideas, infer meanings, and construct coherent interpretations of the text (Zhou, 2021). Thus, fostering reading fluency is essential for promoting overall reading proficiency and facilitating meaningful engagement with written material across various academic and real-world contexts.

Comprehension Strategies: Comprehension strategies are essential cognitive tools that readers use to actively engage with text and construct meaning (Everett, 2020). These strategies involve a range of mental processes, such as summarizing, predicting, visualizing, questioning, and monitoring understanding. By employing these strategies, readers can enhance their comprehension of the text, extract key information, and make connections between different parts of the text. For example, summarizing involves synthesizing the main ideas and details of a passage into a concise form, allowing readers to identify the most important information and comprehend the overall message more effectively. Similarly, predicting involves making educated guesses about what will happen next in the text based on prior knowledge and clues provided by the author, which helps readers to anticipate the direction of the text and maintain engagement.

According to Dijk & Kintsch (1986) in “Strategies of discourse comprehension”, comprehension strategies empower readers to actively monitor their understanding of the text and employ corrective actions when necessary. For instance, when encountering challenging or confusing passages, readers can use strategies such as questioning to clarify meaning, seek additional information, or make connections with prior knowledge. Visualizing involves creating mental images or representations of the text, which aids in understanding and retention by providing concrete visual cues (Dijk & Kintsch, 1986). By employing a combination of comprehension strategies, readers can navigate through text more effectively, extract deeper meanings, and develop a more nuanced understanding of the content. These strategies are crucial tools for fostering critical thinking skills, promoting independent learning, and enhancing overall reading comprehension.

2.3 Approaches to Teaching Reading Comprehension

Approaches to teaching reading comprehension encompass a diverse array of instructional methods and strategies aimed at fostering students' ability to understand and interpret written texts effectively (Zhou, 2021). Recognizing the importance of reading comprehension in academic achievement and lifelong learning, educators employ various approaches to engage learners in developing essential skills and strategies for comprehending and analyzing texts across different genres and content areas. These approaches are informed by theoretical frameworks, empirical research, and pedagogical principles and they aim to address the diverse needs, preferences, and learning styles of students. From explicit instruction in comprehension strategies to the integration of technology-enhanced learning tools, approaches to teaching reading comprehension continue to evolve to meet the changing demands of today's educational landscape (Dhillon et al. 2020). This introduction provides an overview of key approaches to teaching reading comprehension, highlighting their theoretical underpinnings, instructional techniques, and potential benefits for student learning and literacy development.

Explicit instruction: Explicit instruction is a systematic approach to teaching reading comprehension that involves directly and explicitly teaching students specific comprehension strategies (Abdelrahman & Bsharah, 2014). In explicit instruction, educators provide clear and direct explanations of the targeted strategies, breaking down complex processes into manageable steps that students can understand and follow. Teachers often begin by introducing a comprehension strategy, such as predicting, summarizing, or questioning, explaining its purpose and relevance in understanding text. They then model how to apply the strategy using think-alouds, demonstrating the cognitive processes involved in comprehending a text. Through modeling, teachers verbalize their thought processes, highlighting how they make predictions, monitor understanding, and adjust their comprehension strategies as needed. After modeling, students engage in guided practice activities, where they work collaboratively with the teacher to apply the strategy to a shared text, receiving feedback and support as they practice using the strategy independently. Finally, students are encouraged to apply the strategy independently during individual reading tasks, with ongoing support and monitoring from the teacher as needed. Explicit instruction emphasizes the importance of providing structured and systematic support to students as they develop their reading comprehension skills (Oliver, R., & Young, S. 2016). By breaking down the comprehension process into discrete steps and providing explicit guidance and modeling, teachers help students build a repertoire of comprehension strategies that they can apply flexibly across different texts and contexts. This approach aims to empower students to become strategic and independent readers, capable of using a range of comprehension strategies to make sense of challenging texts. Explicit instruction is grounded in cognitive and constructivist theories of learning, which emphasize the importance of active engagement, metacognition, and deliberate practice in developing expertise and mastery in reading comprehension (Oliver, R., & Young, S. 2016).. Through explicit instruction, students not only acquire essential comprehension skills but also gain confidence and self-efficacy as readers, laying the foundation for lifelong learning and academic success.

Interactive Read-Alouds: Interactive read-alouds are a dynamic instructional approach where teachers read aloud to students while actively engaging them in discussions, predictions, and reflections about the text (Maxwell, 1970). According to Young et al, (2023), in “Engaging students with expository books through interactive Read-Alouds” said during interactive read-aloud sessions, teachers’ select high-quality texts that align with students' interests, instructional goals, and curriculum objectives. As teachers read aloud, they pause strategically at key points in the text to prompt students to make predictions, connections, and inferences, encouraging them to actively engage with the material (Young et al, 2023). Through guided questioning and discussion, teachers scaffold students' comprehension skills, helping them to develop a deeper understanding of the text's content, structure, and meaning. Interactive read-alouds also provide opportunities for teachers to model fluent reading, expression, and comprehension strategies, while fostering a supportive and collaborative learning environment where students feel comfortable sharing their thoughts and ideas about the text. Furthermore, interactive read-alouds promote critical thinking skills and foster a love of reading by encouraging students to actively participate in the reading process. By engaging students in meaningful discussions and reflections about the text, teachers help students to develop their analytical and evaluative skills, as well as their ability to make connections between the text and their own experiences, prior knowledge, and other texts (Thamrin, 2014). Through interactive read-alouds, students learn to ask questions, make predictions, infer meaning, and evaluate the author's purpose and perspective, deepening their comprehension and appreciation of literature. Additionally, interactive read-alouds create a sense of community and shared reading experiences in the classroom, where students feel valued, respected, and empowered as active participants in the learning process.

Strategy-Based Instruction: Strategy-Based Instruction (SBI) is a comprehensive approach to teaching reading comprehension that focuses on equipping students with a toolkit of effective strategies to enhance their understanding of texts (Dhillon et al. 2020). Central to SBI is the explicit teaching of specific comprehension strategies, such as predicting, summarizing, questioning, visualizing, and monitoring comprehension. Through direct instruction, modeling, and guided practice, teachers introduce these strategies to students, demonstrating how and when to apply them while reading various texts. SBI emphasizes the importance of metacognitive awareness, encouraging students to reflect on their thinking processes and select appropriate strategies based on the text's purpose, genre, and content. By teaching students a range of comprehension strategies, SBI empowers them to become active, strategic readers who can effectively navigate and comprehend complex texts across different subject areas. In Strategy-Based Instruction, students are encouraged to apply the comprehension strategies they have learned in a flexible and adaptive manner (Loyd & Steele, 1986). Teachers provide opportunities for students to practice using these strategies independently, in small groups, and during whole-class discussions. Through scaffolded instruction and gradual release of responsibility, students gain confidence in selecting and employing the most appropriate strategies to support their comprehension goals. Additionally, SBI emphasizes the importance of explicit instruction in metacognitive strategies, such as self-monitoring and self-regulation, which enable students to monitor their understanding, identify areas of confusion, and adjust their reading strategies accordingly. By integrating metacognitive and comprehension strategies, SBI fosters students' autonomy, critical thinking skills, and overall reading proficiency (Horowitz-Kraus, 2016).

Scaffolded Instruction: Scaffolded instruction is a teaching approach that provides structured support and guidance to students as they learn new concepts or skills, gradually fading this support as students gain proficiency and independence (Aritonang et al., 2019). In the context of teaching reading comprehension, scaffolded instruction involves carefully designing learning activities and tasks that help students develop their understanding of texts while providing the necessary support to scaffold their learning. Initially, teachers provide explicit instruction on comprehension strategies, modeling how to apply these strategies effectively (Talmor & Berant, 2019). They then offer guided practice opportunities where students work collaboratively with teacher support to apply the strategies to increasingly complex texts. As students demonstrate proficiency, teachers gradually decrease the level of support, allowing students to take on more responsibility for their learning and apply comprehension strategies independently. Throughout scaffolded instruction, teachers continually assess students' understanding and adjust the level of support accordingly to ensure that students are challenged appropriately while still making progress. By scaffolding instruction, teachers can effectively support students of varying skill levels and provide targeted interventions for those who may need additional support. Scaffolded instruction promotes active engagement, fosters confidence and independence, and ultimately leads to deeper levels of comprehension as students gradually internalize and apply comprehension strategies in their reading independently (Brown, 2001: 299).

Reader’s Workshop: Reader's Workshop is an instructional approach that centers on fostering a love of reading and developing reading comprehension skills through student-centered, independent reading activities (Honig, 2001). In a Reader's Workshop, students have the opportunity to choose books based on their interests, preferences, and reading levels, which promotes ownership and autonomy in their reading experiences. Teachers provide mini-lessons on various comprehension strategies, such as predicting, summarizing, questioning, and visualizing, tailored to meet the diverse needs of students. These mini-lessons are brief and targeted, focusing on specific skills or concepts that students can apply to their independent reading. Additionally, teachers confer individually with students to monitor their progress, provide feedback, and offer support as needed, allowing for personalized instruction and differentiation. During Reader's Workshop sessions, students engage in sustained periods of independent reading, during which they apply the comprehension strategies they have learned to make meaning from the texts they have chosen (Honig, 2001). While reading, students may jot down notes, make predictions, ask questions, or engage in discussions with peers about their reading. Peer discussions and collaboration are encouraged to promote a sense of community and to provide opportunities for students to share their thoughts, insights, and reactions to the texts they are reading. By fostering a supportive and engaging reading environment, Reader's Workshop empowers students to become lifelong readers who are motivated, strategic, and reflective in their reading practices.

2.3.1 Importance of teaching reading comprehension

According to Valeria (2008) in “Importance of teaching reading comprehension with nonfiction texts”, teaching reading comprehension is of paramount importance as it is a foundational skill that underpins academic success and lifelong learning. Proficient reading comprehension enables students to access, understand, and analyze a wide range of texts across different content areas, including literature, science, history, and mathematics (Rochman, 2018). Through effective comprehension instruction, students develop the ability to extract key information, discern main ideas, make inferences, and evaluate arguments, which are essential skills for critical thinking, problem-solving, and decision-making. Furthermore, strong reading comprehension skills facilitate effective communication, as individuals are better equipped to comprehend and respond to written messages, engage in meaningful discussions, and express their ideas coherently and persuasively (Valeria, 2008). Overall, teaching reading comprehension equips students with the cognitive and metacognitive strategies they need to navigate complex texts, think critically about information, and become lifelong learners who are empowered to succeed academically and thrive in an increasingly information-rich world.

2.4 Teaching Reading Skills

Reading is one of the four language skills in English. Reading is a way that can be used to communicate with other people. By reading, students can get knowledge and information that might be useful for them, but it is not easy to be good reader, moreover if the English text is complicated. The students need more understanding about the main ideas of the reading text. According to Brown (2004:189), reading is a process of negotiating meaning to the texts for understanding. In the case, reading is a way or process to gain information from a text. Reading consists of two related processes: word recognition and comprehension. Word recognition refers to the process of perceiving how written symbol correspond to one’s spoken language.

According to Grellet (1981:7), reading is a constant process of guessing and what one brings to the text is often more important than what one finds in it. There are many symbols and writings that must be known in the text that is read. This is why, from the very beginning, the students should be taught to use what they know to understand unknown elements, whether these are ideas or simple words. Therefore, reading is the key to successful language learning, especially in foreign language. By reading the reader can get information about knowledge of technology and science.

In recent years, various methods of teaching reading have been the continuous subject of a great deal of highly animated debate among educational committees, teachers, and parents. Teaching reading skills is a multifaceted endeavor that requires educators to employ a variety of strategies and approaches to help students develop proficiency in decoding, comprehension, fluency, and vocabulary acquisition. To begin, educators often focus on decoding skills, which involve teaching students to recognize and understand the sounds and symbols of written language. Through phonics instruction, students learn letter-sound relationships and decoding strategies that enable them to accurately pronounce words and decode unfamiliar text. Additionally, educators incorporate phonemic awareness activities to develop students' ability to manipulate and blend sounds, laying a strong foundation for reading fluency and comprehension.

According to Koifman (2023) in “Teaching Reading skills more effectively”, teaching reading skills encompasses explicit instruction in comprehension strategies aimed at helping students understand and interpret written texts effectively. Educators guide students in employing comprehension strategies such as predicting, summarizing, questioning, and making connections to extract meaning from text and engage critically with the content (Koifman, 2023). Additionally, educators foster vocabulary development by exposing students to rich and diverse language experiences, incorporating vocabulary instruction and word-learning strategies into their lessons. By integrating these approaches, educators can support students in developing the essential reading skills they need to become proficient readers who can comprehend, analyze, and evaluate a wide range of texts across different genres and content areas.

2.5 Short Stories Reading

Short stories are brief, fictional narratives that typically focus on a single event, character, or theme (Jeni, 2020). Unlike novels, short stories are characterized by their brevity and compactness, often conveying their message or meaning concisely within a limited word count. These narratives are often structured around a central conflict or dilemma, with a clear beginning, middle, and end. Short stories can explore a wide range of genres and themes, from romance and mystery to science fiction and horror, offering readers a diverse array of literary experiences in a compact format.

According to Domar (1951) in “six short stories: Reading texts for intermediate Russian courses”, the history of short story reading dates back centuries, with short-form fiction emerging as a popular literary genre in various cultures around the world. Early examples of short stories can be found in ancient oral traditions, where storytellers would share brief, captivating tales to entertain and educate their audiences (Bartan, 2017). As literacy rates increased and written languages developed, short stories became a prominent literary form, with notable contributions from authors such as Edgar Allan Poe, Anton Chekhov, and Guy de Maupassant. In the modern era, short stories continue to thrive as a vibrant and dynamic literary genre, with writers from diverse backgrounds and cultures contributing to its rich tapestry of narratives. Today, short stories are celebrated in literary magazines, anthologies, and online platforms, providing readers with a wealth of captivating and thought-provoking stories to explore and enjoy (Domar, 1951).

Exploring short stories can provide readers with valuable insights into the human experience, as these narratives often capture moments of profound emotion, revelation, or transformation (Syafii, 2018). Through the exploration of characters, settings, and plotlines, short stories offer readers the opportunity to engage with complex themes and ideas in a condensed form. Moreover, the brevity of short stories allows for quick and accessible reading experiences, making them ideal for individuals with limited time or attention spans. Additionally, short stories offer writers the chance to experiment with narrative techniques, character development, and storytelling conventions, fostering creativity and innovation in the literary arts.

2.5.1 Importance of short stories

According Dosbaeva (2022) in “The importance of detail in translation of short stories”, short stories hold significant importance in literature and human culture for several reasons. Firstly, they offer readers succinct and concentrated narratives that can deliver powerful messages and evoke strong emotions within a relatively short span of time (Dosbaeva, 2022). This brevity makes short stories accessible to a wide range of readers, including those with limited time or attention spans, and allows them to experience the richness of storytelling without committing to lengthy novels. Additionally, short stories often serve as vehicles for exploring complex themes, character development, and social commentary, offering readers diverse perspectives on the human experience.

Moreover, short stories play a vital role in fostering creativity and imagination. Writers have the opportunity to experiment with narrative techniques, structure, and style in short-form fiction, allowing them to hone their craft and develop their unique voices. For aspiring writers, short stories serve as a valuable platform for practicing storytelling skills, refining storytelling techniques, and receiving feedback from readers and peers (Boyko et al, 2023). Furthermore, short stories provide a space for marginalized voices and underrepresented perspectives to be heard, offering opportunities for cultural expression, social critique, and dialogue on important issues.

In addition to their literary and artistic merits, short stories also have practical applications in education and personal development. They are frequently used in classrooms to teach reading comprehension, critical thinking, and literary analysis skills, as well as to promote empathy, cultural awareness, and tolerance. Furthermore, short stories can serve as vehicles for personal reflection and introspection, providing readers with insights into their own experiences, beliefs, and emotions (Maurcer, 2017). Overall, the importance of short stories lies in their ability to entertain, educate, inspire, and provoke thought, making them an integral part of the literary landscape and human culture.

2.6 Review of Empirical Studies

2.6.1 Reading Comprehension and Short stories

The study titled “Teaching Reading Comprehension Through Short Stories in Advance Classes” by Pourkalhor Omid and Nasibeh Kohan, investigates the impact of short story instruction on advanced-level tenth-grade students’ reading comprehension. The study aimed to determine whether short story instruction positively influences student reading comprehension. The study involved 20 advanced-level tenth-grade students. Two groups were formed; Experimental Group: Students received short story instruction over ten weeks. Control Group: Students followed the traditional method of teaching reading comprehension.

A reading comprehension test was used as the assessment instrument. The experimental group outperformed the control group in the comprehension test. Short story instruction had a positive impact on student reading comprehension. In summary, this study highlights the effectiveness of using short stories as a teaching tool to enhance reading comprehension skills (Pourkalhor & Kohan, 2013). It underscores the importance of incorporating engaging literary texts in the classroom.

The hypothetical relationship between reading comprehension and short stories suggests that exposure to and engagement with short stories can significantly enhance reading comprehension skills. Short stories, with their concise yet rich narratives, provide readers with opportunities to practice key comprehension strategies such as making inferences, analyzing characters and themes, and drawing conclusions within a compact narrative structure (Khatib & Nasrollahi, 2012). Moreover, the brevity of short stories allows readers to focus on essential elements of the text, leading to deeper understanding and interpretation. As readers encounter a variety of short stories across different genres and styles, they develop their comprehension abilities, vocabulary, and critical thinking skills, ultimately improving their overall reading comprehension proficiency (Syafi, 2018).

2.6.2 Reading Comprehension and Reading skills

The study titled “Reading Skills and Reading Comprehension in English for Specific Purposes” by M. Bojovic investigates the impact of short story instruction on advanced-level tenth-grade students’ reading comprehension. The study aimed to determine whether short story instruction positively influences student reading comprehension. Here are the key points from the research: The study involved 20 advanced-level tenth-grade students. Two groups were formed: Experimental Group: Students received short story instruction over ten weeks.

Control Group: Students followed the traditional method of teaching reading comprehension. A reading comprehension test was used as the assessment instrument. The experimental group outperformed the control group in the comprehension test. Short story instruction had a positive impact on student reading comprehension. In summary, this study highlights the effectiveness of using short stories as a teaching tool to enhance reading comprehension skills (Bojovic, 2010). It underscores the importance of incorporating engaging literary texts in the classroom.

The hypothetical relationship between reading comprehension and reading skills suggests that the development and proficiency of reading skills directly influence one's ability to comprehend written texts effectively. Reading skills encompass a range of cognitive processes, including phonemic awareness, decoding, vocabulary acquisition, and fluency, which are fundamental to understanding and interpreting text (Jenkins et al, 2003). As individuals strengthen their reading skills through practice and instruction, they become better equipped to decode words accurately, extract meaning from text, make inferences, and engage critically with written material. Ultimately, the mastery of reading skills enhances reading comprehension, enabling individuals to comprehend, analyze, and evaluate a wide range of texts across different genres and content areas with greater depth and accuracy (Davis, 1968).

2.6.3 Reading skills and Short stories

The empirical research on the impact of using short stories to enhance 5th graders’ reading comprehension skills in Hebron District. The study titled “The Effect of using short stories on the Development of 5th Graders’ Reading Comprehension Skills in Hebron District” investigated this topic. Here are the key findings: The study aimed to determine whether teaching reading comprehension through short stories positively influences students’ comprehension skills. The research was conducted with a purposeful sample of 5th-grade students in a governmental school in Hebron District during the academic year 2016/2017.The sample included 87 students from The Korean Palestinian Basic School for Boys.

Two groups were formed; Experimental Group: Students were taught using the short stories technique. Control Group: Students followed the traditional method (English for Palestine).A reading test was prepared, and its content validity and reliability were established (with a reliability coefficient of 0.8).The experiment lasted for one month, during which a pre-test and post-test were conducted using the reading skills test.

The experimental group (taught using short stories) demonstrated statistically significant differences in their reading skills compared to the control group (Bartan, 2017).The study recommends that training programs be offered to teachers to familiarize them with the short stories technique. Students should be provided with opportunities to practice using this method. Modern methods of teaching short stories can lead to better outcomes in students’ reading skills (Sarwat et al, 2023).In summary, incorporating short stories into the curriculum can significantly enhance reading comprehension skills among 5th graders.

Reading skills and short stories share a symbiotic relationship, with each influencing and enhancing the other (Khatib & Mehrgan, 2012). Short stories serve as valuable tools for developing and honing reading skills, providing readers with engaging and manageable texts that allow for focused practice in decoding, comprehension, fluency, and vocabulary acquisition. By engaging with short stories, readers can strengthen their ability to decode words, understand and interpret text, recognize literary devices, and infer meaning from context (Bartan, 2017). Conversely, proficiency in reading skills enables readers to fully appreciate and engage with the nuances of short stories, allowing them to delve into the intricacies of plot, character development, and thematic exploration. Thus, the interaction between reading skills and short stories creates a mutually reinforcing cycle that fosters literacy development and enriches the reading experience (Ceylan, 2016).

2.7 Research Gap

The research gap lies in the limited exploration of specific instructional strategies and their impact on reading comprehension outcomes among junior secondary students. While there is existing literature on the benefits of reading instruction and the use of short stories in enhancing comprehension skills, there remains a dearth of studies focusing specifically on the junior secondary school level. Existing research often focuses on primary or secondary school students as a whole, without considering the unique developmental needs and challenges faced by junior secondary students. As a result, there is a gap in understanding how instructional methods tailored to this specific age group, such as targeted vocabulary instruction, explicit comprehension strategies, and scaffolded reading activities, can effectively improve reading comprehension achievement.

The existing research predominantly focuses on the general effects of reading instruction on comprehension skills, without delving into the nuanced effects of different types of texts, such as short stories. While short stories are commonly used in language arts curricula, their specific impact on reading comprehension among junior secondary students remains underexplored. It is unclear how the characteristics of short stories, such as narrative structure, complexity, and thematic content, influence students' comprehension processes and outcomes. Therefore, there is a gap in the literature regarding the differential effects of instructional approaches using short stories compared to other types of texts, such as novels or informational texts, on junior secondary students' reading comprehension achievement. Closing this research gap is essential for informing evidence-based instructional practices tailored to the developmental needs and interests of junior secondary students.

2.8 Summary of the Literature Reviewed

The literature review on this research reveals several key findings and insights. Firstly, studies have consistently demonstrated the positive impact of incorporating short stories into the curriculum on students' reading comprehension abilities. Short stories offer various benefits, including engaging plotlines, relatable characters, and concise narratives that are well-suited to students' attention spans and cognitive abilities. Additionally, short stories often contain rich language and vivid imagery that can enhance students' vocabulary development and literary analysis skills. Furthermore, research suggests that instruction in short stories can improve students' overall reading proficiency, including their ability to comprehend complex texts, infer meaning from context, and make connections between different literary elements. By exposing students to a diverse range of short stories across various genres and themes, educators can broaden their understanding of different cultures, perspectives, and human experiences, fostering empathy and cultural competence.

The literature highlights the importance of incorporating effective instructional strategies when teaching short stories to junior secondary students. Techniques such as explicit vocabulary instruction, guided reading discussions, and scaffolded comprehension activities have been shown to enhance students' comprehension skills and critical thinking abilities. Additionally, integrating multimedia resources, such as audio recordings or visual aids, can further support students' engagement and comprehension of short stories. Overall, the literature underscores the value of incorporating instruction in short stories into the curriculum as a means of promoting students' reading comprehension achievement and fostering a lifelong love of reading.

METHOD AND PROCEDURE

This chapter captures the description of methodology and procedures which includes the research design, population and sample of the study, sampling techniques, instruments for data collection, validity and reliability of instrument, procedure for data collection and method of data analysis.

3.1 Research Design

The quasi-experimental research was adopted for the study. Specifically, the pre-test post-test non-equivalent control group design. The design allows for the use of intact classes, assignment of participants to treatment conditions was not on the basis of randomization, but assignment of participants was on the basis of intact classes. The design is represented as follows:

Group	Pre-test	Treatment	Post-test
Experimental	0₁	X	0₂
Control	0₃	………	0₄

Key: 0 = Pre-test for experimental Group

X = treatment on experimental Group

0₂ = Post-test for experimental Group

0₃ = Pre-test for control Group

…. = Absence of treatment on control Group

0₄ = Post-test for control Groups

A statistical diagram illustrating the Non-equivalent Control-Group Design (adapted from Awotunde & Ugodulunwa ( 2004)

3.2 Population and Sample of the Study

3.2.1 Population

The target population for this study comprises all 24 public secondary schools in Jos South LGA of Plateau State, see appendix 9 for list of schools. The population of JSS2 students in the 24 schools were 1122 students from different backgrounds.

3.2.2 Sample

The sample for the study is made up of two Junior Secondary Schools in Jos South LGA. Ninety-five (95) Junior Secondary School Il students drawn from the selected secondary schools. Intact classes were used. One class had 45 students, while the second class also had 50. The students who constitute the sample of this study are students from different ethnic backgrounds, such as the Ngas, the Mwagavul, Tarok and other tribes -who have integrated into the Jos South Local Government Area- With different social and economic background.

3.3 Sampling Technique

The random sampling techniques was used to sample two schools from the 24 Secondary schools in Jos South LGA and were written on piece of papers the names of the schools, with each piece carrying the name of a school, which were squeezed. The pieces of papers were properly mixed and placed in a basket. The researcher closed her eyes and picked one piece. The remaining pieces in the basket were re mixed again, and the same process was followed to select the second school.

The researcher employed the random sampling for the selection of level, which allows deliberate choice of the J.S.S 2 class. This is because the class is neither a preparatory class for Junior Secondary School Certificate Examination (JSCE) nor a beginners’ class. There was no sampling at the class level. All the students in J.S.S 2 of the sampled schools automatically became the sample for the study, and this is because the study is quasi-experimental research, which requires intact classes.

The decision as to which school will be assign to experimental or control group was done according to how the schools were selected; school A was selected first and so JSS2 students of the school became the experimental group and JSS2 students of school B became the control group.

3.4 Instrument for Data Collection

The instrument for the study was Short Stories Comprehension Test (SSCT).

3.4.1 Description of Instrument

The Short Stories Comprehension Test (SSCT) was the instrument for data collection. Suitable story passages were adopted to test students’ ability to reading skills. This will give the researcher the idea on the level of exposure background knowledge of the respondents, which at the long run use such knowledge to write their own short stories.

The test items served as instrument to collect data from the students in both pre-test and post-test. The criteria for assessing short stories was used. The students’ ability to identify and answer questions from the main ideas in a text was allotted 10 marks, supporting details, 10 marks, literal questions 10 marks, inferential questions 10 marks and ability to answer critical questions 10 marks, giving a total of 50 marks which were converted to 100 marks during data analysis.

3.4.2 Procedure for the Development of the Instrument

The instrument for the pre-test was adopted by the researcher from a short story passage from Chinua Achebe’s Things Fall Apart (1958). Prior to the proper research, the researcher had consulted relevant literatures on short stories reading comprehension skills and how they can be tested. Using the knowledge, the researcher generated a topic similar to the adopted short story passage. The test items were constructed and carefully arranged and subjected to experts for scrutiny and corrections were effected following the recommendations of experts before the final copy was produced.

3.5 Validity and Reliability of Instruments

3.5.1 Validity

The Validity of the instrument was sought before use. The face and content validity were sought by subjecting them to experts in the field for scrutiny in order to assess the appropriateness of the instrument. A draft of the test items was presented to experts in the Test and Measurement Department of University of Jos, the researcher's supervisor and some lecturers of Arts Education Department to ascertain its validity before it will be administered to participants of the research.

3.5.2. Reliability

For the reliability of the Short Stories Comprehension Test (SSCT) to be effectively determined to test the effects of instruction in short stories JSSII students reading comprehension, the Kuder-Richardson method of reliability testing was used to establish the stability of the instrument.

The scores from the Short Stories Comprehension Test (SSCT) will be used to determine the reliability coefficients of the instrument using test-retest coefficient. The reliability indices for the pre-test and post-test was stated.

3.6 Procedure for Data Collection

The researcher visited the schools that were used as subjects of the study and sought the permission of the authorities for the use of the schools. The study was carried out within the duration of six weeks. In the first week, the researcher administered the pre-test to both experimental and control group to determine their level of comprehension using short stories. For the experimental group, four weeks was used for treatment, using one lesson period of 40 minutes each to teach the students reading composition using short stories. The control group continued to receive instruction on comprehension using short passages. After exposure to different conditions, the researcher administered the post test at week six to ascertain the effects of the different conditions on both samples.

3.6.1 Administration of Pre-test

Before the commencement of treatment, the researcher administered the pre-test in the first week of the study to the experimental and control group to ascertain their prior knowledge on short stories reading comprehension. The essence for the pre-test is to compare their performance after they have been exposed to different conditions.

3.6.2 Administration of the treatment

The experimental and control group were exposed to different study conditions for four weeks. The former was taught types of short stories, paragraphing, and steps to having an effective reading comprehension, which will in tum enhance their reading ability while the latter will be taught their normal English language lessons.

The researcher activated the students background knowledge on some selected short stories before proper use comprehension passages (short stories). The students brainstormed and scouted for ideas, as the instructor use the stages of short stories appropriate for the task/topic. Prior to the lesson, the instructor had selected some stories which the students can answer literal, inferential and critical questions. This was the intervention for the experimental group. while the control group were taught the comprehension reading skills without emphasis on the stages of reading and short story usage.

3.6.3 Administration of post-test

After the intervention, the researcher rounded off the experiment by administering post-test. This was done in week 6.

3.7 Method of Data Analysis

The researcher employed the descriptive and inferential statistics to analyze and interpret the data that was collected. These include the mean scores and standard deviation which was used to answer the research questions and the t-test for independent samples to and test statistics. The presentation of the mean score of the experimental and control groups and the standard deviation in the measured short stories comprehension skill will guide the researcher to establish answers for all research questions. The t-test for independent samples was used to calculate the relationship between the mean and scores of the experimental and control groups and the “effect” will be determined and the null hypotheses tested at 0.5% level of significance. Formula for t-test independent samples is given as:

t =

Where;

X = Mean

S² = Variance

n = Sample size

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

This chapter presents the results of the analyses based on the research Questions raised and the hypotheses that were formulated to guide the study.

4: 1 Results

Research Question One

What is the pretest and posttest main idea identification achievement mean scores of JSSII students between the experimental and control groups.

The result of the t-test analysis from table 10 reveals that the experimental group had a pre-test mean scores of X = 16.42, SD = 3.16 while the control group had a mean scores of X 10.41, SD = 3.71. The results indicate t (93) = 7.47P< 0.000. Since the p-value of 0.000 is less than the significant level of 0.05 we reject the null hypothesis and conclude that there is significant difference in the critical comprehension level achievement mean scores between the experimental and control groups in favor of the experimental group. Hence we can say that instruction in short stories help to improve students’ achievement in critical comprehension level more than conventional teaching method.

4. 2 DISCUSSION

The aim of this study was to determine the effect of instruction in short stories on students reading comprehension achievement in Jos South L.G.A of Plateau State, Findings from Table 1 reveals that students that were taught main idea identification in comprehension using short story instruction achieved higher than those that were taught using conventional method. These findings are in accordance with the studies by KYNE (2012) who reported that students who were taught using repeated short stories achieved higher than students that were taught using conventional method. The implication of these Findings is that short story instructions help to improve student’s achievement in main idea identification aspect of comprehension.

The result of the findings from table 2 reveals that students that were taught using short story instruction achieved higher in supporting details in comprehension than students that were taught using conventional method. This is in agreement with the Findings by Arjaffal (2014) who found that students’ oral reading fluency using short story achieved higher than those that were taught using the conventional method. The implication of these Findings is that short story instruction has the potential to improve students achievement in supporting details in comprehension.

Findings from table 3 reveals that students that were taught using short story instruction technique achieved higher than those that were not in literal comprehension. This is also in agreement with the findings by PhaJane (2014) who reported that short story instruction improves students achievement in reading comprehension. The implication of this is that short story has the ability to improve students achievement in literal comprehension.

Findings from table 4 reveals that there is a significant difference in the achievement mean scores of students that were taught inferential comprehension between the experimental and controls group. This is also in accordance with the findings by Oluronti (2014) who found that short story instruction improves the reading ability of struggling readers more than conventional method. Fin from table 5 reveals that students that were taught critical comprehension achieved higher than those that were not this is in agreement with the assertion of Bahman and Shahram (2014) who reported that short story improves students’ achievement in reading skills more than conventional method. The Findings from table 6 reveals that students that were taught critical comprehension achieved higher than those that were taught using conventional method. This is also in tandem with the findings by Karansa (2014) who reported a significant difference in the achievement of students between the experimental and control group on studying with reading difficulty.

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

This last chapter is not the least. It is the summary of all preceding chapters, with conclusions drawn from the study contributes to knowledge. It also contains the researcher’s suggestions and recommendations based on the findings of the research.

5.1 Summary of Findings

This study was designed to experiment effects of instruction in short stories on junior secondary students’ reading comprehension in Jos South LGA, Plateau State. The focus of the research is on public students in Jos South LGA. Failure has been identified in their use of English and specifically Reading comprehension; that is the reason this work is purposefully sought to assess the effects of-recognition, word identification, and new words development. The three were tested to determine the level of students’ achievement in short stories.

The findings of this study revealed that:

· The instruction of short stories on word recognition enhanced the mean achievement scores of students in the use of reading comprehension in English.

· Students in experimental group were able to perform higher than that of control in post-test in the areas of identifying words in short stories in English.

· The post-test means score showed a significantly difference in the two groups, with the experimental group achieving significantly higher because of the intervention received, while the performance of the control group in the post-test showed a little improvement.

· The effects of short stories instruction improved JSS2 students’ achievement in reading comprehension even though little errors were observed during reading.

· The pre-test means scores of the experimental and control groups showed no significant difference.

5.2 CONCLUSION

Evidence from this research has shown that teaching short stories as an entity is better. This is justified by the improvement of the experimental group over the control group in reading comprehension as a result of treatment received in experimental group. The finding also showed an improvement in words identification, words recognition, and development of new words. This implies that using short stories separately is better, because students were thoroughly carried through the technicalities of reading where samples of marked dummies of external exams were given out to the students, and the researcher vividly explained the penalties for the comprehension reading. This aided much in making the students more careful in committing similar errors in the subsequent practice. In the course of teaching, the researcher also guided the learners to a certain level on what and how to read comprehension error-free.

The finding of this study indicated that students learn reading comprehension rapidly by being careful and skillful in the use of reading instruction, as evidence showed from the performance of the experimental group.

5.3. RECOMMENDATIONS

The researcher has offered some recommendations as follows:

· English language teachers should be encouraged to integrate short stories instruction meaningfully in teaching comprehension.

· Short stories should be learner-centered in such a way that learning materials are applied to encourage active participation of the learners, while the role of the teacher is to guide the comprehension passage.

· Curriculum planners are also advised to plan minimum standard taking cognizance to include short stories instruction as an entity.

· English language teachers should encourage students to read books extensively which will develop students’ inspirations to apply incomprehension passage.

· Parents should be encouraged to create an enabling reading environment for their children who will make them learn unconsciously the correct grammatical usage and adapt to think creatively in writing their feelings, emotions and opinions.

· Comprehension reading should be established in all public secondary school with a clear intervention from government which will serve as motivating factor to capture the interest of the learners to involve in reading regularly.

· Ministry of Education in the state should supply ample creative learning materials such as story books, English language textbooks, novels, plays, poems, diagrams, pictures and other related materials.

· Teachers in the secondary schools should study the uniqueness of the learners in teaching comprehension using short stories instruction and the right approach should be applied to solve the reading problems.

· Teaching comprehension should be practical because it increases students’ understanding of the concept, and the teacher must be expert, skillful, and sophisticated especially in the use of reading.

· It is further recommended that studies be conducted on the other types of reading comprehension i.e. intensive, extensive.

5.4 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY

This research is limited to junior secondary school students 2 in Jos South LGA Plateau State. If there would have been enough time and resources, the study would have been extended to all JSS students in Jos South. The population of the study is limited to only JSS2 students, of which two intact classes were used because of the time allotted for English. The study is also limited to short stories instruction due to limitation of time and resources for testing the other areas of concern.

The study encountered the following limitations:

The school authorities did not permit the reorganization of the groups setting through randomization; therefore, the researcher used intact classes, resulting in a quasi-experimental research.

Only reading was tested during the research. It would have been rather difficult and time consuming to test all for other aspect of comprehension in one study, seeing that one reading is testing word recognition, words identification, and development of new words. To experiment all reading types would require more analyses of the scores, which is rather tedious. Therefore, the short stories were treated both in the pre-test and post-test.

5.5 SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER STUDY

In view of the limitations of this study, some suggestions are provided for further research. The effects of short stories instruction on JSS2 students’ achievement in comprehension reading was limited to only JSS2 students of Jos South LGA. Therefore, the researcher was unable to extend it to JSS1 & JSS3. Also, the study was limited to only JSS2 students, however, for further study; it would cover all Junior Secondary School Students in Plateau State.

This research involving only short stories instruction could be replicated in other topics of English language.

5.6 CONTRIBUTION TO KNOWLEDGE

This study has vastly contributed to knowledge as the findings confirm that learners achieve better when taught short stories separately for emphasis. The study exposed the language teachers to learn the practical stages of teaching short stories with remarkable comprehension while the learner acquired unconsciously the process of mastering the use of words recognition, words identification, and development of new words. The study also exposed both the language teachers and the students to variety of material usage in teaching and learning short stories.

This study has contributed to knowledge so immensely in the sense that the research findings confirm that students achieve better when taught short stories in English comprehension. The researcher could see the enthusiasm in the students as they were given opportunity to go through the dummies to make their observations for the first time. Learning English comprehension in that way was fun!

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ARTICLE INFO	ABSTRACT
*Article No.:* 120824191 *Type: Research* *Full Text:* PDF, PHP, HTML, EPUB. MP3 *DOI:* *10.15580/gjer.2024.1.120824191*	The study investigated the effects of instruction in short stories on Junior Secondary Students’ reading comprehension in Jos South Local Government Area, Plateau State. This is to examine how the level of exposure to short stories instruction will help improve the reading comprehension achievement of students in Jos South LGA, Plateau State. The study was necessitated by the poor performance of students in reading comprehension in the study area. The Study was guided by five research questions and five hypotheses. The population consisted of all the 1,122 JSS2 students in government secondary schools in Jos South LGA, Plateau State. A sample of 95 students drawn from the two secondary schools were selected randomly and used for the study. The sample was made up of 50 Students in the control group and 45 students in the experimental group. The experimental group was taught to short stories while the control group was not. Data were elicited by means of the Reading Comprehension Achievement Test. Mean and t-test were used for data analysis. Decisions were taken at 0.05 level of significance. The results showed that JSS2 students were very poor in reading comprehension before exposure to short stories. The performance of students in the experimental group greatly improved after exposure to short stories. Furthermore, the study found significant difference between the mean achievement of control and experimental groups in all the five skills treated in the study. Teachers of English should therefore, endeavor to use short stories to teach reading comprehension skills to students. The study concluded that the use of instruction short stories is very effective in improving JSS Students Reading Comprehension Achievement.
*Accepted:* 10/12/2024 *Published:* 14/12/2024
Corresponding Author Manyil, Maureen Zwalwap* *E-mail:* manyilnengi1@ gmail.com
*Keywords: short stories, comprehension, reading, effects*