Analysis of the Quality of Water in
Hand Dug Wells and Boreholes in so-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";mso-font-kerning:0pt;mso-ligatures:
none;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB;mso-fareast-language:EN-GB'>
Benefit Onu (PhD)
Department of Biology,
Faculty of Science, Federal University Otuoke
This research work focuses on the quality of water between hand dug
wells and borehole in Ogbia Local Government Area.
Water samples were collected from Otuoke, Onuebum and Emeyal I
communities. The microbial and physicochemical parameters were analyzed in the laboratory and the data analysis was
conducted using SPSS. The results of physicochemical parameters of the hand
dug wells indicated a pH range of 7.34 to 8 21. The Total Dissolved Solids
(TDS) for hand dug well is 562.60 mg/L, 891.47 mg/L, and 1230.47 mg/L
respectively. While Turbidity is 3.47NTU, 5.75NTU and 754NTU sequentially for
each community sampled. The physicochemical parameters of the borehole
samples indicate a pH of 5.8, 5.05 and 6.05, The TDS were 202.33 mg/L, 232.50
mg/L and 207.13 mg/L. The physicochemical parameters of the samples examined
when compared with the WHO standard indicate that some of the parameters are
slightly below the WHO standard while others were within the permissible
limits of WHO standard for drinking water. The bacteria isolated in the water
samples were Staphylococcus spp. Serratia spp., Citrobacter spp., Bacillus
spp. Streptococcus spp., Salmonella spp. Shigella spp. Pseudomonas spp.
Proteus spp. Micrococcus spp., Arthrobacter spp. Klebsiella spp. Enterobacter
spp., Cellulabiosoccus spp. Escherichia spp. The
total heterotrophic bacteria for the water samples did not meet up the WHO
drinking water standard and the coliform level was above the WHO limit. This
indicates that the water in the area is unsafe for drinking.
Accepted:25/12/2023
Published:
20/01/2024
*Corresponding Author
Benefit Onu
E-mail: Benefitonu28@ gmail.com
Keywords:
Water
Quality, Hand Dug Wells, Boreholes, Physicochemical Parameters,
Heterotrophic Bacteria
INTRODUCTION
Water is a very essential substance for human existence. Adequate supply
of water is important to life. The provision of water in most parts of the
world in the past was solely a government affair. However, the inability of the
government to meet the daily demands of water for the people has forced some
private individuals and communities to seek alternatives and self-help of
providing water [1]. Private individuals drill their own deep wells
(boreholes), In some localities, they dig wells due to its affordability. This
hand dug wells are contracted to serve as a source of water supply [2]. Water
meant for food preparation and drinking must be free from contaminants
(organism) capable of causing diseases and from minerals and organic substances
producing adverse physiological effects. In some communities, water from deep
wells is sold to the public without reference and conformance to requisite
quality standards such as set by the World Health Organization [3][4].
The quality of groundwater resource
depends on the management of human waste as well as the natural physico-chemical characteristics of the catchment areas [5]. Also, depending on the geology of an area
underground waters are typically rich in dissolved solids especially
carbonates, sulphate, calcium and magnesium. Other ions may also be present
including chlorides and bicarbonates [5]. Hence, it is necessary to obtain physico-chemical characteristics of the groundwater so-as
to compare and monitor water quality and to determine the type of treatment
that may be required before use.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Study Area
Ogbia Local Government Area (LGA) is well known for its
historic value to the today Nigeria state economy mainstay i.e., its oil
industry being the local government area encompassing Oloibiri
the first place oil was discovered in commercial quantities in Nigeria in 1956.
Fishing and farming are the major occupation of the people of Ogbia LGA with the areas rivers and streams been rich in
aquatic organisms, other economic activities in include trading and making of
fishing nets and canoes, civil service, craftsmanship, tailoring, contracting
and consultancy. In Ogbia the wet seasons is warm and
overcast, the dry season is hot and mostly dry.
3.2 Sample Collection
A
total of six groundwater samples were collected at three different locations
within the study area; Otuoke, Onuebum and Emeyal
I communities. The
water samples were collected using hard plastic and screw-capped bottles that
have been sterilized to avoid contamination by any physical, chemical or
microbial means. The collected well and borehole water samples were then
transferred into sterile containers before taken to the laboratory [6].
Bacteriological analysis
Preparation of nutrient media
The
nutrient media used for this study were sterilized by autoclaving. Nutrient
agar and Macconkey agar were used for the cultivation
and enumeration of the bacterial population of the samples. Other nutrients
media were used for biochemical test of the isolates. Kliger iron agar was
utilized for detecting lactose and glucose fermentation, gas and hydrogen
sulfide production. Simmon citrate agar was used for the detection of Indole
production [6].
The power medias were weighed and dissolved in
distilled water according to the manufacturer’s instructions. The dissolved
media were autoclaved at 1210C for 15 minutes, following standard
operation procedures [6].
Preparation of Sample
Serial
dilution of samples was done to achieve a reduction of the microbial population
in the water samples. 1ml of the sample was collected aseptically with a
syringe and poured into a test tube containing 10ml of normal saline, to form a
stock culture/solution. The stock culture was properly mixed, thereafter, 1ml
was collected and transferred into the first dilution tube (1:10). The dilution
of the sample was done up to the 5th dilution (1:100000)
Cultivation of total
heterotrophic bacteria
The
cultivation of the total heterotrophic bacteria was done on nutrient agar using
pour plate method. Inoculation was done with the 2nd dilution
(1:100) in triplicates.
Cultivation of coliform
bacteria
The
cultivation and enumeration of the coliform bacteria associated with the water
samples was done on Macconkey agar. The 2nd
dilution of the prepared samples was plated using pour plate method.
Isolation of bacteria
To
identify the bacteria associated with the water samples, selected bacterial
colonies were sub cultured. The colonies were randomly selected and picked off
with sterile wire loop. The colonies were sub-cultured on fresh nutrient agar
plates by streaking colonies on the agar surface using the three-loop method.
Biochemical tests and
characterization of bacterial isolates
The biochemical tests and characterization of
bacterial isolates was done by using the gram staining technique, catalase
test, indole test, oxidase test,Kliger
iron agar slant test, citrate, H2S, glucose and lactose fermentation
test, gas and hydrogen sulphide (H2S) production test were used to
identify the organisms [6].
PHYSICO-CHEMICAL ANALYSIS
Determination of PH
A
calibrated pH meter (standardized with two buffer solutions pH4 and pH5) was
used for the determination of the pH of the groundwater samples [7].
Determination of conductivity
and salinity (us/cm-1)
The
electrical conductivity and salinity of the groundwater sample was measured
with the conductivity meter which also has the salinity meter attached.
The
total dissolved solids (TDS) were determined by adding 100ml of water sample
into the dish and evaporated to dryness in a water bath. The dish and its
content were placed in an oven and dried at 1050 C to a constant
weight [7].
Determination of turbidity
The
turbidity was determined by inserting the water sample into the calibrated
turbid meter and the turbidity was measured directly in NTU units.
Determinants of Nitrate (NO3)
To
determine the Nitrate, the spectrophotometer was set at 570nm and the %
Transmittance was taken and the concentration of nitrate (NO3) in
mg/l was read directly from a concentration chart.
To
determine the total alkalinity (TA), 100ml of filtered water samples were
placed in 250ml conical flask, 2 drops of methyl orange indicator were also
added to give the orange color. This was titrated with a 0.02m HCI to a light
pink color end point. Values were calculated following the formular below: VT
= Vol. of HCI, M = Molarity of HCI, 1000, 000n = Molar mass of
CaCo3 in (mg).
TA = VT
x M x 100,000
Vol. of Sample
Determination of total
hardness (TH)
A 50ml
titration Burette was filled with a 0.01m EDTA solution to the ‘O’ mark. 100ml
of filtered water samples were introduced into a 250ml conical flask. 1ml of
ammonia ammonium
Chloride buffer was then added to the flask. 3 drops of
Eriochrome Black T indictor were added to produce the red wine colour. This was titrated to a marine blue end-point (colour). A = mg equipment of 1ml EDTA which is (1ml= 10
units)
Total
hardness TH = VT x M x 1000
Vol. of Sample
Mineral analysis (Metal Ions)
Wet ashing method was used in the determination of metal irons.
Potassium (K) was determined by flame photometry while
Calcium (Ca), Chlorides (CI), Iron (Fe), Sulphates (SO4), were
determined by AAS at their various wavelengths using Acetylene / Air gas
combination.
Statistical analysis method
Data
analysis was conducted with the statistical Programmed for Social Sciences
(SPSS) version 20. Data from the laboratory were presented in tables, and
descriptive statistics was conducted on the data. Thereafter, inferential
statistics was conducted which was used to reach conclusions at 0.05 (5%) level
of significance.
RESULTS
Borehole Otuoke = BO,
Borehole Onuebum = BHO, Borehole Emeyal
I = BE, Hand dug well Otuoke = HO, Hand dug well Onuebum = HDO, Hand dug well Emeyal
I = HE.
The
total heterotrophic bacteria in Borehole water shows that Onuebumboreholewater has the mean of 130.33, Otuoke has the mean of 90.67 and Emeyal
I borehole water has the smallest mean of 51.00. From their mean occurrence its
shows that the total heterotrophic bacteria in Onuebum
and Emeyal I are high when compared with Otuoke borehole. The heterotrogphic
bacteria in Hand dug wells water shows that Otuoke
sample has highest mean of 263.67, Onuebum has the
mean of 185.67, and Emeyal I has the smallest mean of
149.00. From their mean occurrence its shows that the total heterotrophic
bacteria in Otuoke are high when compared with Onuebum and Emeyal hand dug well.
The descriptive statistics on the coliform bacteria in borehole water shows
that Onuebum borehole water has the highest number of
coliform bacteria with the average mean of 240.00 followed by Emeyal borehole water 115.67 and Otuoke
with the smallest number of coliform bacteria with average mean of 115.67. The
descriptive statistics on the Coliform Bacteria in hand dug well water shows
that Onuebum sample has highest mean of 266.33, Otuoke sample has mean of 135.00 and Emeyal
has the smallest mean of 97.33.
Table 1: Descriptive Statistics on the Physico – Chemical Properties of Borehole Water
Properties
Sample Stations for Borehole
Water
Borehole Water Otuoke, Onuebum and Emeyal
WHO
Standard
(2011)
Mean
Standard
Deviation
Mean
Standard
Deviation
Mean
Standard
Deviation
Ph
5.84
0.2
6.05
0.3
5.02
0.01
6.5-8.5
Cond
156.00
3.46
238.63
0.40
181.57
0.60
1000
Sal
0.35
0.02
0.22
0.01
0.54
0.02
0.5
Tds
202.33
0.35
232.50
1.84
207.13
0.23
500
Turb
3.19
0.31
4.08
0.13
3.64
0.11
5
Nitrates
2.69
0.04
8.44
0.28
1.38
0.06
45
TA
23.28
0.37
17.21
0.05
30.36
0.06
120
T.H
31.63
0.35
21.20
0.17
68.53
0.25
100
Ca
17.10
1.08
21.27
0.31
26.70
2.04
75
CI-
53.70
0.30
34.30
1.76
14.00
1.31
250
Fe
0.04
0.01
0.08
0.02
0.20
0.01
1.5
SO4
0.42
0.07
3.23
0.19
3.08
0.73
250
pH - Cond = conductivity, Sal = Salinity, TDS =
Total dissolved solids, Turb = Turbidity, Nitrates, T.A = Total alkalinity, T.H
= Total hardness, Ca = Calcium, CI -= Chloride, Fe= Iron and SO4 =
Sulphates.
The result
of the pHobtained in Otuoke were about the range of 5.8 and Emeyal
I 5.05 were below the WHO standard and this implies that it is acidic so it’s
dangerous for drinking. Onuebum 6.05 is within the
WHO drinking water standard, and the acceptable WHO limit is 6.5-8.5. The
results of the conductivity ranged from 156.0 uS/cm,
238.63 uS/cm, 181.57 uS/cm,
respectively among the three locations indicates that it is below the WHO
drinking water limits which is 1000 mg/l. The TDS result ranged from 202.33
mg/l, 232.50 mg/l, 207.13 mg/l among the three locations and are all below the
WHO drinking limits and the WHO acceptable limit is 500-1000mg/l. Turbidity
ranged from 3.19 NTU, 4.08 NTU, 3.64 NTU respectively and is below the required
WHO drinking water standard, the acceptable standard is 5 NTU. The result of
the Salinity obtained in Otuoke was about the range
0.350/0 and Emeyal 0.220/0
were below the WHO limits and Onuebum 0.540/0
was within the accepted standard, and the required standard is 0.50/0.
Nitrate, Total Alkalinity (TA), Total hardness (TH), Calcium (Ca) Chloride
(CI-), Iron (Fe), and Sulphates (SO4) are all below the WHO drinking
water standard.
Table 2: Descriptive Statistics on the Physico-Chemical Properties of Hand-dug Wells
Properties
Sample Stations for Hand-dug
Wells
Hand-dug Wells Otuoke, Onuebum and Emeyal I
WHO
Standard
(2011)
Mean
Standard
Deviation
Mean
Standard
Deviation
Mean
Standard
Deviation
Ph
7.34
0.03
8.21
0.01
7.35
0.09
6.5-8.5
Cond
431.10
0.78
730.43
0.51
581.80
1.04
1000
Sal
0.07
0.02
0.15
0.02
0.06
0.02
0.5
Tds
562.60
2.23
1230.47
0.57
891.47
0.47
500
Turb
3.47
0.22
7.54
0.12
5.75
0.21
5
Nitrates
0.20
0.03
1.72
0.06
0.09
0.02
45
TA
210.87
0.60
176.40
0.30
122.87
0.76
120
T.H
18.20
0.60
43.77
0.59
33.63
1.10
100
Ca
46.03
0.75
77.10
0.98
53.77
0.45
75
CI-
1.20
0.14
61.57
2.93
41.37
0.60
250
Fe
0.13
0.02
0.02
0.01
0.24
0.01
1.5
SO4
1.25
0.38
0.59
0.27
13.63
1.56
250
The pH
in the three locations ranges from 7.34, 8.21, and 7.35 respectively and it
indicates that they are within the WHO drinking water standard, the acceptable
WHO standard for pH is from 6.5-8.5. The result of the Total dissolved solids
(TDS) that of Otuoke 562.60 mg/l and Emeyal 891.47 mg/L samples were within the WHO standard and
that of Onuebum 1230.47 mg/L was very high above the
WHO standard, the acceptable standard is from 500-100 mg/L. Result of
Turbidity, Otuoke 3.47 NTU sample was low, Emeyal I 5.75 NTU sample was above the WHO Standard and Onuebum 7.54 NTU sample was too high above the drinking
water standard, the acceptable standard is 5 NTU. Result from Total alkalinity
were all above the WHO drinking water standards with Otuoke
210.87 mg/L the acceptable WHO standard, Emeryal I
53.77 mg/L the acceptable WHO standard for T.A is 100 mg/L. The result for
Calcium (Ca) show that, that of Onuebum which is
77.10 mg/L has the highest value which is above the WHO standard. The
acceptable WHO standard for Ca is 75 mg/L. The result of Nitrates ranges from
0.20 mg/L, 1.72 mg/L, 0.09 mg/L, respectively among the three locations and it
indicates that they are all below the WHO drinking water standard and the
acceptable WHO standard is 45 mg/L. Conductivity (Cond), Salinity (Sal),
Nitrate, Total hardness (T.H), Chloride (CI-), Iron (Fe), and Sulphate (S04)
are all below the WHO standard.
TABLE
3: Biochemical tests and characterization of bacterial isolates in sample BO
The results in table 3 to 8
above represent the biochemical test and characterization of bacterial isolates
in sampleBO, BHO, BE, HO,HDO and
HE. A total of six organisms were identified in each of the samples, the
identification was done base on biochemical test and added by advance bacterial
identification software (ABIS).
DISCUSSION
The
presence of heterotrophic bacteria generally indicates poor environmental
sanitation and recent pollution by sewage [8]. On
site observation of the boreholes and hand dug wells showed that a good number
of these sources are not protected and lack concrete floor around the hand dug
well, this reflects poor environmental sanitation and higher contamination. The
use of buckets which have been left on ground in collecting water from the
unprotected water sources might contribute to the increase contamination
levels.
The results of this study reveal the mean of coliform
bacteria estimated to be high for majority of the samples which clearly
exceeded the standard limit set by WHO. WHO standard of portable water states
that no microbial indicator is supposed to be present in any 100ml of drinking
water. The presence of bacteria makes the water unsafe for drinking and for
domestic use. water samples from boreholes of the three locations confirms that
they are not safe for drinking [9]. The high level
of coliform bacteria level recorded in this work could be as a result of poor
refuse and sewage disposal system, mainly open disposal method practiced in
these areas.
Human and Animal faeces are
the common sources of microbiological contamination of underground water
sources. [10] also found that distance between
sanitary facilities, boreholes and hand dug wells were in most cases close,
hence the high contamination with human feaces which
gain access into ground water during leaching process. The presence of these
organisms indicates inadequate water treatment or fresh water contamination.
Coliform in distribution system and stored water supply can reveal growth and
possible biofilms formation or contamination through foreign materials,
including soils or plants. These water bacteria are causative agents of many
diseases and their presence pose a potential threat to human health [11].
The pH of the borehole water samples collected from the
three different locations are mostly below the WHO Standard. This implies that
they are acidic so it’s dangerous for drinking. Onuebum
pH of 6.05 is slightly below the WHO drinking water standard, and the
acceptable WHO limit is pH 6.5-8.5. The result obtained indicate that the
drinking water is weakly acidic to neutral, this value may affect the toxicity
of microbial poisons in the water [12]. The results
of the conductivity ranged from 156.00 uS /cm, 238.63
uS/cm, 181.57 uS/cm,
respectively among the three locations these values are below the WHO drinking
water limits which is 1000 mg/L. The result further revealed that there is
moderate dissolved salt in the water [13]. The TDS
result ranged from 202.33 mg/l, 232.50 mg/l, 207.13 mg/l among the three
locations and are all below the WHO drinking limits and the WHO acceptable
limit is 500-1000 mg/l. TDS concentrations across sampled wells are quite low
and there is the tendency for the water to become flat and insipid in taste [14]. WHO drinking water standard is 5 NTU and this
result is similar with that reported by [15] in a
similar work in Eastern Nigeria. The result of the Salinity obtained in Otuoke was between the range of 0.350/0 and
Emeyal 0.220/0 were below the
WHO limits and Onuebum 0.540/0
was within the accepted standard, and the required standard is 0.50/0
Nitrate. Total Alkalinity (TA), Total hardness (T.H), Calcium (Ca)
Chloride (CI-), Iron (Fe), and Sulphate (SO4) are all below. It has
been noted that low SO4 concentration has no effect on human health.
Low calcium, serves as control on water pH [11].
The physiochemical parameters of the hand dug wells
samples, shows that the pH in the three locations ranges from 7.34, 8.21, and
7.35 respectively and it indicates that they are within the WHO drinking water
standard, the acceptable WHO standard for pH is from 6.5-8.5. The pH result is
neutral when observed in the samples and it may be an indication of
contamination. The result obtained in this work is in agreement with what was
recorded by [16]. Result of Turbidity in Otuoke 3.47 NTU sample were low, Emeyal
5.75 NTU sample was above the WHO drinking water standard and Onuebum 7.54 NTU sample was too high above the drinking
water standards with Otuoke 210.87 mg/L having the
highest value which is very high above the WHO limit, Onuebum
176.40 mg/L and Emeyal 122.87 mg/L. The acceptable
WHO standard for T.A is 100 mg/L. The result for Calcium (Ca)
for Onuebum is 77.10 mg/L which is the highest value
among the three locations. Emeyal 53.77 mg/L and Onuebum 46.03 mg/L are below the WHO standard, and the
acceptable WHO standard for Ca is 75 mg/L. The results of Nitrates range from
0.20 mg/L to 1.72 mg/L, respectively among the three locations and it indicates
that they are all below the WHO drinking water standard for Nitrates [8].
Frequency of Occurance of
Bacteria isolates indicates the organisms that appeared in the samples when analysed from the three different locations namely: Staphylococcus spp,
Serratiaspp, Citrobacterspp, Bacillus spp, Streptococcus spp,
Salmonella spp,
Shigellaspp, Pseudomonasspp,
Proteus spp,
Micrococcus spp,
Arthrobacterspp, Klebsiellaspp, Enteobacte. The highest bacteria specie recorded
is Escherichia. The WHO drinking water standard for microorganisms is
0.00 and this implies that the water samples are not safe for drinking but can
be treatable because it is caused by different activities [11]. High count of
indicator bacteria suggests heavy pollution from
different anthropogenic sources [17].
CONCLUSION
The
result of the study obtained from the three different locations namely Otuoke, Onuebum and Emeyal bacteriological water analysis reveals that all the
boreholes and hand dug wells were not free from total heterotrophic and
coliform bacteria. High level of coliform was recorded in this work. This is
suspected to have risen as a result of poor refuse and sewage disposal system,
inadequate water treatment and pollution from industrial activities. The
bacteriological quality of underground water sources for the three locations
shows poor quality as reflected by the overall mean value for both heterotrophic
and Coliform bacteria.According to [18][19] guide lines for drinking water, underground
water sources (boreholes and wells) are supposed to be at least 30m away from
sewage and refuge sites. From the results of this research, it can be construed
that the water obtained from the research area are not safe for consumption due
to high level of microorganisms and minerals present in the samples, unless
proper treatment is carried out. It is
therefore pertinent thatcontinuous
monitoring as well as water treatment measures be taken for the people of these
three locations to ensure maximum safety and healthy living for all. Regular
washing of tanks with disinfectant and maintenance of public and private
environmental sanitation should be done to reduce the rate of contamination of
ground water and formation of biofilms in storage materials. Regulatory bodies
should be empowered and made to employ the polluted pay principle and good
practice should be adopted, in order to effectively achieve the expected goal
and global sustainability demand.
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Cite
this Article: Onu, B (2024). Analysis
of the Quality of Water in Hand Dug Wells and Boreholes in Ogbia Local Government Area. Greener Journal of Life Sciences, 6(1): 1-9.
