The interplay of technology and interpreting is not new. Technology has
always had an impact on interpreting, especially since the 1920s when the first
simultaneous interpretation systems was invented (AIIC 2019). Simultaneous conference interpreting was
made possible by technological advances, specifically through the telephone
technology, known as the first telephonic interpreting equipment. It is
definitely the Nuremberg trials (1945–1946)
which gave high visibility to simultaneous interpreting. Simultaneous
interpreting has been experimented at the ILO (International Labour
Organization) and at the League of Nations with limited success (Baigorri Jalón, 2004,
chapter III), perhaps to a large extent because
of resistance by leading conference interpreters who were afraid that this
development would reduce their prestige and be detrimental to working
conditions (Baigorri Jalón, 2004, p.
148). Over time, the advent of the internet and globalisation, alongside
the emergence of more efficient technologies have allowed more sophisticated
set-ups with different consoles, headsets, microphones and booth designs,
amongst others.
More recently, new advances in information and communication
technologies (ICTs) have been virtually reshaping the interpretation practices,
thus leading to the possibility for Remote Simultaneous Interpreting (RSI) in
the form of teleconference interpreting (TI) to cover both telephone and
videoconference, understood here as one of the modalities covered by Distance
Interpreting (DI). These advances have once more impacted the practice of
conference interpreting, as we see the development of cloud-based conferencing
platforms allowing for (or specially designed to support) simultaneous
interpretation. They often use soft (virtual) interpreting consoles but can
often be connected to traditional hard (physical) consoles. These cloud-based
conference interpreting platforms are called Simultaneous Interpreting Delivery
Platforms (SIDPs).
The
Covid-19 pandemic, with its wide-ranging restrictions on large gatherings and
travel, temporarily put a halt to traditional multilingual on-site meetings.
Within only a few weeks, the latter went from being the norm to becoming the
exception. Conversely, the number of meetings mediated through online
conferencing tools (e.g. Adobe Connect, Google Hangouts Meet, Skype, Webex, Zoom, etc.) skyrocketed, although reliable figures
quantifying this increase are not available. The recent COVID-19
pandemic thus accelerated the implementation of Work from Home (WFH) method,
thereby fostering the proliferation of Hybrid Meetings (HM) hence
highlighting the more, the impact of new technologies
on the practice of interpretation. Remote Simultaneous Interpreting stands out
as one of the most impactful change brought in by the new technologies. The
purpose of our research is to identify the effect of RSI on the practice of
conference interpreting in Cameroon, and how they have been welcomed on the
Cameroonian market, to what extent they are implemented and used in the
country.
Language, media,
technology, and indeed, the world is constantly evolving and unless
interpreters adapt to the evolution, they will not be able to keep up with the
demands of the profession (AIIC,2016). These new
technologies have brought significant changes in the practice of interpretation
in the world in general, and in Cameroon in particular, with the advent of
remote interpreting probably coming up as a type of interpreting. The next
possible question here is to know the effectiveness of the use of these new
technologies on the Cameroonian market and the impact these new technologies
have on the performance of interpreters, on their experience, and the possible
consequences.
The research problem of this study may be best
articulated by the following questions:
i.
What is the prevalence of RSI among conference interpreters in Cameroon?
ii.
What is the future of
conference interpretation in Cameroon?
Based on the aforementioned problems, the study aims
at:
i.
Examining the prevalence of RSI among conference interpreters.
ii.
To attempt a guess on
the future of conference interpretation in Cameroon.
This section is made up of three main parts. Part one focuses on
conceptual review that is, all the concepts pertaining
to our study. Part two concentrates on theoretical review as we will elaborate
and relate to our study a number of theories pertaining to our work. Part three
lays emphasis on the empirical review, where we will explore and analyse
existing literature related to the effect RSI has had in Africa.
In this section, we will present and review all the key concepts that
revolve around this study, these include simultaneous
interpretation, Distance interpretation, remote interpretation and the
interpretation market.
The first definition, from Herbert (one of the early simultaneous
interpreters and interpreter trainers), identifies three varieties of
simultaneous interpreting (Herbet, 1952). According to him, simultaneous interpretation
included "whispering", whereby interpreters sitting next to a
conference delegate whisper their interpretation to them; "telephonic
simultaneous", whereby interpreters listen to the original through
earphones and speak their interpretation into a microphone; and "translation
at sight", whereby interpreters receive a text written in one language and
read it aloud in a different language. Although it is true that all three tasks require the relatively
instantaneous transfer from verbal input in one language to verbal output in
another, from a processing point of view, the three are rather distinguishable
- perhaps different enough to revisit Herbert's original definition.
In this light, it seems appropriate to begin with the current definition of
simultaneous interpreting as suggested by the International Association of
Conference Interpreters (AIIC), according to which "in simultaneous mode,
the interpreter sits in a booth with a clear view of the meeting room and the
speaker and listens to and simultaneously interprets the speech into a target
language" (AIIC 2019). Defining it in similar terns as Herbert but giving it the status of a
modality in its own right. Simultaneous interpreting with text, also called
sight interpretation (Lambert, 2004), refers to a scenario
in which interpreters receive a manuscript of an address to be delivered,
allowing them to read along (or ahead) in the text while listening to the
speech.
Distance interpreting (DI), as defined by the
International Standardization Organization is, “interpreting of a speaker in a
different location from that of the interpreter, enabled by information and
communications technology (ICT)” (ISO 2017a: 2). It
is a blanket term covering different technical arrangements enabling
multilingual events whereby participants—including interpreters—need not share
the same physical space. Importantly, the notion of distance is not
specifically defined and can range from a few metres (when interpreters are
located in a room adjacent to the meeting room) to a few thousand kilometres
(when interpreters are located in a different country or on a different
continent). Although the nomenclature used to refer to specific types of
distance interpreting set-ups has varied over the years, recently there has
been a convergence on four discrete notions, as they capture what have been
identified as the principal features of DI (Braun 2015;
Seeber 2018). The International Association
of Conference Interpreters (AIIC) defines four types of distance interpreting (AIIC Executive Committee 2018): Videoconference
Interpreting (VCI), Audioconference Interpreting
(ACI), Video Remote Interpreting (VRI) and Audio Remote Interpreting (ARI).
It is therefore not worthless to differentiate between teleconference
interpreting and remote interpreting. The former includes audio and
video-conference interpreting, implying that interpreters share the physical
space of at least some (usually the majority) of the conference participants (see figure1). The latter comprises audio and video
remote interpreting, and refers to scenarios where the interpreters are not
located with any other conference participants, and indeed, not even
necessarily with each other (see figure 2).
2.1.3. Remote Simultaneous Interpreting
The term Remote Simultaneous Interpreting (RSI) was
used as early as 1998 following an experiment at the Stanford University School
of Medicine. Remote Simultaneous
Interpreting (RI), refers to the use
of communication technologies to gain access to an interpreter in another room,
building, town, city or country to interpret a speech as it is been delivered.
In this setting, a telephone line or videoconference link is used to connect
the interpreter to the primary participants, who are together at one site.
Remote interpreting by telephone is nowadays often called telephone
interpreting or over-the-phone interpreting. Remote interpreting by videoconference is often simply called remote
interpreting when it refers to spoken-language interpreting. In
sign-language interpreting, the term video remote interpreting has established
itself. Remote interpreting is best described as a method of delivering
interpreting. It has been used for simultaneous, consecutive and dialogue
interpreting.
It is significant to note that the temporary
suspension of in-person meetings during the 2020 pandemic provided a segment of
the interpreting profession with just enough time to upskill
to remote simultaneous interpreting (RSI) and be ready to serve a vastly
different virtual meeting industry either from their home office computer set-up
or from dedicated centres equipped to support RSI in near-traditional
conference room conditions and respecting a certain set of standards.
An interpreting market is taken
to include all stakeholders, from the institutions that train interpreters, the
interpreters themselves, hiring agencies and individuals and institutions that
use the services of interpreters.
Kelly (2010: 3) states that:
“The interpreting market is divided mainly into two
parts – the supply side and the demand side. The organizations that purchase
interpreting services are categorised within the demand side of the market,
while both the agencies that contract interpreters and the interpreters
themselves form part of the supply side of the market. Organizations engaged in
workforce development – such as professional associations and universities –
are also included within the scope of suppliers in the broader analysis”
According to AIIC, the interpreting market can either be private or
public. In the private market, AIIC used the rule of ‘direct contract’ through
which it obliged any client to directly contract individual interpreters. This
prevented intermediaries (conference organisers) from making profit on
interpreting services provision. They in turn opposed this arrangement and
resorted to recruiting non-AIIC interpreters, forcing AIIC to abandon this
policy altogether in 1971 (Mikkelson 2015: 31). For the public market, AIICs main instrument
to enforce respect for interpreters working conditions has been and continues
to be collective agreements with the most important inter-governmental
employers of freelance interpreters, mainly the UN and EU institutions. From
the website of AIIC, the sectors with which it presently negotiates agreements
include the EU, the UN, the Global Union Federations, and the World Customs
Organisations. These contracts are renegotiated every five years, since 1969.
The interpretation market is defined
as the sum of the segments, as well as an analysis of the trends and factors
which play an important role in the market. These factors are: the market
dynamics, involves the drivers, restrains, opportunities and challenges through
which the impact of these factors is outlined by (Global
Interpretation Service Market size by Application, by Geographic Scope and
Forecast, June 2021).
2.1.4.1. The African Interpretation Market
Viewed by AIIC Africa, the
main working languages used in the African market are English, French, Arabic, Portuguese,
and Spanish as well Chinese and Russian. And evidently, since Africa is a continent with rich linguistic diversity, African languages
are also used in national parliaments and international meetings, with Swahili
leading the pack. Interpretation services are sought by the African Union (AU)
and its organs, the African Development Bank (AfDB), Regional Economic Communities (RECs), United Nations
organisations and agencies, financial institutions, international NGOs and
government institutions, to name a few. Other clients that know AIIC refer to
the blue book (AIIC Directory) or its online version to find
interpreters based on their needs. Using this tool and others, UN
agencies have generated databases, which they use to contract interpreters for
events around the world. The slump in global economic activity has not
spared the African industry. Budgetary constraints slashed event management
allocations. Consequently, the market has suffered a serious backlash and
competition for offers is stiff. Under the circumstances, professionals with
niche markets strive to secure their client base on excellence and
professionalism.
A new development in
the AIIC Africa Region is the increase of interpretation schools in the Region.
Besides the European Commission and United Nations Office at
Nairobi-sponsored interpreter training programmes run by the Pan African Masters Consortium in Interpretation & Translation (PAMCIT) in Cameroon, Ghana, Kenya, Mozambique, and Senegal. There are
many other private initiatives on the continent. Cameroon, for example, which
had one interpretation school for 25 years, has witnessed a five-fold increase
in the number of schools. These initiatives will go a long way in boosting the
number of trained interpreters in the African market, and consequently, the
supply of skilled professionals.
In a market threatened by economic constraints, the
last thing needed was the stealthy arrival on the scene of the deadly
Coronavirus in 2020. Many meetings were cancelled. As the world yearns for a
return to normalcy after the Covid-19 curve drops, the glimmer of hope now lies
in remote simultaneous interpreting (RSI). Although it remains
unknown how successful several initiatives launched to adjust interpretation
practice to suit current changes imposed by the virus will be, it is crystal
clear that the market will never be the same again. Technical guidance on RSI
is crucial. Hence the need for interpreters to envisage a
major paradigm shift with training to harness technological assistance.
RSI has emerged as a ground-breaking solution in the field of conference
interpretation, revolutionizing the way multilingual events and meetings are
conducted. This paper examines the empirical evidence surrounding the adoption
and utilization of RSI, exploring its benefits, challenges, and implications
for effective cross-cultural communication. It delves into the specific context
of Africa, a continent known for its linguistic diversity and unique challenges
in conference interpretation, and will further narrow its scope to Cameroon, a
country where RSI has gained significant traction. By analysing the experiences
and perceptions of stakeholders involved, this empirical review aims to shed
light on the transformative power of RSI and its potential to bridge language
barriers and foster intercultural understanding in an increasingly globalized
world.
Remote simultaneous interpretation
(RSI) is a mode of interpreting that allows language interpretation to take
place in real-time, while individuals are participating in a meeting or event
from remote locations. RSI has emerged as an important tool for overcoming
language barriers in Africa, especially in a continent where linguistic
diversity is high and multilingualism is prevalent (Ortega-Cantero,
2020). The use of RSI in Africa has been observed to have positive impacts
ranging from facilitating cross-cultural communication and cooperation to
improving the business environment and enhancing international trade and
diplomacy. We are going to establish the effect of using RSI in Africa through
the analysis of various relevant research studies.
One study by Labuschagne
and Kaschula (2021) examined the use of RSI in a
multilingual online conference in South Africa. The study found that the use of
RSI overcame language barriers, facilitated communication, and created a more
inclusive space for participants. Furthermore, feedback from participants
indicated that the quality of interpretation was high, and the technology used
was stable and reliable. The study concludes that RSI has the potential to
empower multilingual communication in Africa.
Another study by Abello-Contesse
et al. (2021) investigated the impact of RSI on the interpretation quality of a
conference that brought together actors from French-speaking African countries
and their English-speaking counterparts. Findings from the study indicated that
RSI improved the quality of interpretation and facilitated communication
between participants, leading to a better understanding of complex topics. The
study concludes that RSI offers an effective solution to language barriers and
enhances the quality of interpretation in African conferences.
Similarly, research conducted by Ssekiboobo et al. (2021) studied the use of RSI in a
virtual international conference hosted in Uganda. The study found that RSI
enabled interpreters to provide an accurate interpretation of speakers' ideas
and messages. The use of RSI also allowed remote participation from speakers
and attendees who would have otherwise faced financial, logistical, and
geographical barriers to attend the conference. The study concludes that RSI
increases accessibility and inclusivity in virtual conferences in Africa.
One of the primary effects of RSI in
Africa has been the facilitation of cross-cultural communication and
cooperation. With RSI, people from different linguistic and cultural
backgrounds can converse and collaborate in real-time, overcoming language
barriers, which have often hindered effective communication and cooperation.
According to Oladejo & Abdulbaqi
(2021), RSI has enabled Africans to work across borders and regions effectively
and efficiently, thus promoting cross-cultural communication and collaboration.
Furthermore, RSI has enabled the
participation of Africans in international conferences, seminars, and
workshops, where they can share knowledge and experiences with peers from
around the world, thus improving the quality of their work and enhancing their
expertise (Ortega-Cantero, 2020).
Secondly, RSI has positively impacted the
business environment in Africa. The technology has made it possible for
companies to engage with potential clients and investors from different linguistic
backgrounds, thus expanding their customer and investment base. For instance, RSI has enabled African businesses to communicate easily
with their counterparts in Asia, Europe, and America, expanding their markets
and opportunities (Adekunle, 2021). Furthermore, the technology
has enabled Africans to participate in global trade and commerce, facilitating
international transactions and negotiations in real-time.
Lastly, RSI has had a significant impact on
diplomacy and international relations in Africa. The technology has enabled
African diplomats and leaders to communicate effectively with their
counterparts, bridging gaps caused by language and cultural differences,
facilitating negotiations, and enhancing diplomatic relations (Ortega-Cantero,
2020). For example, RSI has enabled the participation of African leaders
in international forums such as the United Nations General Assembly, where they
can engage with their counterparts from other countries on important global
issues, enhancing their leadership skills and promoting regional and global
cooperation.
The empirical evidence shows that the
use of RSI in Africa offers several benefits, including overcoming language
barriers, and increasing accessibility and inclusivity. RSI has its limitations
and challenges, such as cost, quality of interpretation, and technical
difficulties (Oladejo & Abdulbaqi, 2021), its benefits far outweigh the challenges, making it
an essential tool for promoting communication and cooperation in a highly
diverse and multilingual continent like Africa. Further research is necessary
to establish the long-term impact of RSI on multilingual communication and
interpretation quality in Africa. Nonetheless, the existing studies indicate
that RSI is a valuable tool for bridging language barriers and facilitating
communication in African conferences and meetings.
. The above literature helps us
understand the various changes RSI has brought about in Africa since its
creation. Mindful of these changes, this study sets out to investigate the
effect of Remote simultaneous interpretation on the practice of conference
interpretation in Cameroon, under the prism of prevalence of RSI, then look
ahead as to know the fate of conference interpretation in Cameroon.
This theoretical review highlights two key theories that underpin this
research. By examining the principles and insights offered by The Evolution
theory and the Technological Determinism theory, this dissertation aims to
advance our understanding and contribute to the existing body of knowledge in
interpretation. Each theory brings a unique perspective and set of concepts,
offering valuable lenses through which we analyse and interpret the findings
that will be presented later in this study.
The evolution theory, also known as
the Darwinian theory of evolution (1859) whose proponent is Charles Darwin,
suggests that species change over time through a process of natural selection.
This means that organisms with traits that are beneficial for their survival
are more likely to reproduce and pass on those traits to their offspring.
When applied to professions, the
evolution theory can mean that certain professions become more relevant and
thrive while others become obsolete and disappear. This can happen as a result
of changes in technology, consumer demand, or other factors that may affect the
profession's ability to adapt to new conditions.
For the case of interpretation,
mindful of the recent advances in technology, interpreters are required to have
a better knowledge of these technologies, to be able to optimise their
renditions, and ensure seamless interpretations.
In conclusion, the fate of a
profession is determined by its ability to adapt and evolve to changing
conditions. Professionals who are willing to learn and grow with the times will
likely thrive in their careers, while those who cannot may struggle to find
work or have to transition to a different field. The ability to adapt and
evolve is key to the survival of any profession in the
long term.
Technological determinism is a theory that posits technology as the
primary driver of social change and development (McLuhan, 1964). According to
this theory, technological advancements shape and influence various aspects of
society, including individual behaviour, cultural practices, and economic
structures. Technological determinism suggests that technology has an inherent
power to shape and determine the direction and trajectory of social progress
(McLuhan, 1964). It argues that the introduction and adoption of new
technologies bring about changes in social norms, power dynamics, and modes of
communication.
This theory implies that society and individuals must adapt to
technological advancements to keep pace with the changing world. It highlights
the transformative power of technology and its influence on how individuals
work, communicate, and engage in various activities within society.
However, it is important to note that technological determinism does not
imply that technology is the sole determinant of social change. It recognizes
the interaction between technology and society, acknowledging that social,
cultural, and economic factors also play a role in shaping the impact and consequences
of technology.
While technological determinism provides valuable insights into the
influence of technology on society, it also has its limitations such as
Technological Bias. Technological determinism can exhibit a bias towards
viewing technology as inherently positive or deterministic,
ignoring the potential negative impacts or the fact that technology is shaped
by human decisions and values.
In conclusion, when applying the theory of technological determinism to
the impact of RSI on the practice of conference interpretation, it is important
to consider its limitations and contextual factors specific to the region.
Technological determinism may overlook the unintended consequences and
unforeseen outcomes of technological change. It can fail to account for the
social, ethical, and environmental challenges that may arise as a result of
technology adoption.
This section aims at presenting and discussing the methods used to carry out the research. It presents the research
design, administration of research instruments, sample, and methods of data
processing and analysis.
Concurrent triangulation, a mixed-method research methodology that
combines the collection and analysis of both quantitative and qualitative data
simultaneously, will be used in this study. For this project, quantitative data
will be gathered using a survey, and qualitative data will be gathered through
in-depth interviews.
The sample for this study
will consist of professional interpreters and
un-trained interpreters (natural interpreters), who work in different parts of the Cameroonian market. Questionnaires
were put to forty-six (46) practitioners, of which six (6) were natural
interpreters, seven (7) conference interpreters and thirty-three (33) senior
translators and conference interpreters. All in all, four people were
interviewed. A senior translator-Interpreter who has retired from the United
Nations and is currently a freelance, with more than forty-eight years of
working experience, the president of the Association of Professional
Translators and Interpreters of Cameroon (APTIC), the head of the
interpretation unit at the Ministry of external Relations of Cameroon, and an
interpreter working at the senate of Cameroon.
3.3. Data Analysis
Data was collected through Google forms which
was generated online. The data was processed with Excel,
critically analysed using SPSS (25) and then presented in figures and tables.
Views from interviews were explored and the researcher attempted to find the
rationale behind them.
4. FINDINGS
Remote Simultaneous Interpretation (RSI) has gained significant traction
in recent years, especially with the advancement of technology and the
increased demand for remote communication. While the specific prevalence of RSI
in Cameroon's conference interpretation industry may vary, it is likely that
the adoption of remote interpretation platforms and practices has been
increasing, especially in response to the COVID-19 pandemic and the need for
virtual conferences and events. The research study revealed a significant
prevalence of RSI among conference interpreters in Cameroon. The findings
indicated that a substantial proportion of interpreters, approximately 89% of
the participants, reported knowing and using RSI. It is the percentage
or frequency of participants who have utilized or are familiar with remote
interpreting services. Majority of those familiar with RSI were translators and
conference interpreters 33 (71.7%), conference interpreters 6 (13%) and
natural interpreters 2 (4.3%).
The prospects of conference
interpretation in Cameroon, considering the adoption of Remote Simultaneous
Interpretation, is promising. RSI opens up opportunities for
interpreters to work beyond geographical boundaries and access a wider range of
events and conferences. It offers flexibility in terms of scheduling and
eliminates travel-related expenses. Additionally, the growing demand for remote
communication solutions due to globalization and technological advancements
creates a need for skilled interpreters who can adapt to remote interpretation
platforms. However, it is essential to address potential challenges and ensure
the quality of remote interpretation services. This includes providing
interpreters with adequate training in using remote interpretation platforms,
fostering proficiency in adapting to the technical aspects of RSI, and
maintaining high standards of interpretation accuracy and professionalism.
5. CONCLUSION
Overall, the research findings
highlight the relatively high rate of use of RSI in Cameroon and the
significance of RSI as a means of increasing accessibility with virtual
conferences, expanding reach to global
audiences, and Cost savings in travel and accommodation thus contributing to a
more connected and inclusive Cameroon. Hence, RSI as a mode on its own, on the
Cameroonian conference interpreting market can be envisaged.
5.1. Recommendations
Based on this research on the effect of Remote
Simultaneous Interpretation (RSI) on the practice of conference interpretation
in Cameroon, the following recommendations can be made to interpreters;
Go in for specialized training programs and professional development
opportunities for conference interpreters, to enhance your skills and
competencies in RSI. Emphasis should be put on adapting to the remote
interpreting environment, using RSI technology effectively, and addressing the
specific challenges associated with remote interpretation.
Improve your technological infrastructure to support
RSI in conference interpreting. This includes ensuring reliable internet
connectivity, access to high-quality audio and video equipment, and appropriate
software platforms for remote interpretation. Investment in infrastructure will
enhance the overall quality and success of RSI implementation.
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