Introduction
Female genital
mutilation (FGM) is internationally recognized as a violation of human rights,
as highlighted by Zaman and Olajide
(2021). This classification places FGM alongside other human rights such as
right to life and liberty, freedom from slavery and torture, and rights to
social protection among others. FGM is a deeply rooted cultural practice
affecting millions of girls and women worldwide, often justified under the
guise of tradition, religious beliefs, or social acceptance.
The practice not only
infringes upon the rights of individuals but also perpetuates gender inequality
and undermines efforts toward sustainable development. As global awareness of
FGM increases, numerous organizations, including ActionAid,
are working to eliminate this harmful practice. By framing FGM as a human
rights violation, we can mobilize collective action and support for policies
that safeguard the health and dignity of women and girls, ensuring their
freedom from violence and discrimination.(World Health
Organization: WHO, 2024) indicates that FGM is practiced in 30 countries in
Africa, the Middle East, and Asia, where it has affected over 230 million girls
and women who are alive today. (Dorkenoo, 1994) reports
that 30% of the Ghanian girls and women undergo FGM
and that its estimated that between one third and fifth of the world’s
population of women and girls are victims of rape, sexual assault, murder,
slavery, mutilation. physical and emotional torture.
In Kenya, some of the
communities still practice FGM in 2024, the UNICEF article dupped;
A Profile of Female Genital Mutilation in Kenya shares the following
communities as still practicing FGM. The highest cases being reported from
Somali, Samburu, Kisii, Maasai some cases in Embu, Meru, Kalenjin, Taita, kikuyu, Kamba and a few in
Luo, Luhya and Turkana
ActionAid Background
ActionAid is an international
charitable organization dedicated to addressing violence against women and
girls living in poverty, with a particular focus on ending harmful practices
such as female genital mutilation (FGM) which UNICEF refers to as "any
procedures involving injury to the female genital organs for non-medical
reasons, or partial or complete removal of the female external genitalia while (Dorkenoo, 1994) takes Zwang’s definition and states that any definitive and
irremediable removal of a healthy organ is mutilation.
ActionAid operates across
rural and urban communities in Africa, Asia, and Latin America, working to
empower vulnerable populations and promote gender equality (Kabeer,
2015; UN Women, 2020). Recognizing that local women have the best understanding
of how to combat violence in their communities, ActionAid
emphasizes participation by funding, training, and supporting grassroots groups
and organizations (Wade, 2016). As their website reports, ActionAid
advocates for increased government and donor funding to bolster these
initiatives, ensuring that the voices of women and girls are heard and that
their rights are upheld (Bauer, Zuckerman, & Smith, 2014; Duflo, 2012). Through these comprehensive efforts, ActionAid is committed to creating lasting change and
eliminating FGM and other forms of violence against women and girls (UNICEF,
2021; WHO, 2018)
The paper will be looking at Action Aid work
in Kenya in an attempt to end Female Genital Mutilation. (Uk, 2024) reports that the organisation
has been in Kenya since 1974 to support local women’s groups who stop women and
girls from being abused and make sure that they have the backing of the law.
Case Presentation
Female Genital Mutilation (FGM) is often performed
as a rite of passage and is viewed as a prerequisite for marriage in many
communities. The procedure and type of FGM vary from one community to another,
with practices ranging from clitoridectomy to
infibulation, depending on cultural and religious traditions (UNICEF, 2020;
WHO, 2018). These cultural norms are deeply embedded in the traditions of
certain communities, where FGM is seen as a necessary step for a woman to
achieve social acceptance and marriageability (Tostan,
2017).
(World
Health Organization: WHO,) 2024 shares four types of mutilation as follows:
The first type entails removing the clitoral
glans, which constitutes the visible and external portion of the clitoris, in
part or in full; the second type involves removing the clitoral glans and the
inner folds of the vulva; the third type involves narrowing the vaginal opening
by creating a covering seal by cutting and repositioning the labia majora or minora, sometimes by
stitching, with or without removing the clitoral prepuce/clitoral hood and
glans. Type 4: This comprises any additional hazardous non-medical treatments
performed on the female genitalia, such as pricking, piercing, incising,
scraping, and cauterizing the area.
These can lead to severe health complications
which would involve short term or long-term effects. According to (Health
Risks of Female Genital Mutilation (FGM), 2024), the cutting is painful and
also the healing process which might take a long time. There could be excessive
bleeding in time of the mutilation. Its
also not a guarantee that it would heal perfectly, If it does not, then that
leads to infections, abnormal scarring and even death resulting from excessive
bleeding or the infections of using the same instruments for cutting. The women
also go through mental health problems due the traumatic procedure of
mutilation.
The long-term effects of FGM can include
chronic genital infections, persistent pain, vaginal discharge, itching, cysts,
and genital ulcers. Also, women who have undergone FGM may experience chronic
back and pelvic pain, urinary tract infections, pain during urination, and
various sexual health problems. These issues arise due to the removal or damage
to highly sensitive genital tissue, particularly the clitoris. FGM also
increases the risk of childbirth complications, such as the need for a
caesarean section, postpartum hemorrhage, and prolonged labor (WHO, 2018;
UNICEF, 2020; Elmusharaf et al., 2019).
(Dorkenoo, 1994) shares a story
of,
An African woman who
had come to deliver but had undergone FGM says that what was left of her
natural external genitals was a mass of scar tissue with only a small opening
hardly enough to admit the little figure. There was no space for the baby to be
delivered as no one was familiar with the practice; the baby was born by
caesarean section.
Still, (ActionAid, 2024) tells
the story of an 11-year-old girl who underwent female genital mutilation and
later got married. She describes the agony of giving birth and having sex.
In ancient times, the intentions behind
Female Genital Mutilation (FGM) or circumcision were not inherently negative;
rather, the core issue lies in the methods and practices that were adopted.
Rev. Canon Josiah, in his book Female Circumcision, provides insight
into this topic, explaining that women in Embu were
not originally subjected to circumcision. However, as societal dynamics changed
and some women began to speak disrespectfully toward men, the men felt
compelled to respond. They believed that by circumcising these women, they
could impose a sense of pain and maturity, which they thought would foster
greater respect for men.
Circumcision
was often seen as a remedy for controlling sexual desire. It was believed that
this practice would help limit women's interactions and relationships with men
outside of marriage, thereby reinforcing societal norms around fidelity and
sexual conduct. The explanation from the Embu
community explains why it's important to understand the reason why societies
practice FGM before encouraging them to abandon it.
Advocacy and Lobbying Efforts
Creation of awareness
Advocacy campaigns have focused on raising
awareness about the harmful effects of FGM. ActionAid
is actively against violations of women’s rights through female genital
mutilation. To make these efforts sustainable, they have decided to start at
the grassroots level, as local communities are the ones who live with these
problems and understand their challenges better (UNICEF, 2020; WHO, 2018). The
main focus of these campaigns is to ensure widespread community participation
in the long-term eradication of FGM. In this manner, ActionAid
insists on the necessity and importance of working collaboratively with the
whole community, leaving no one behind, to ensure that future
generations—children growing up in these cultures—understand that it is
acceptable not to undergo circumcision and that they can still marry without it
(UNICEF, 2020). By changing community beliefs about the need for circumcision,
men are also encouraged to shift their attitudes towards women who have not
undergone the procedure. They come to understand that such women are not “unclean”
but are just as deserving of respect as those who have been circumcised. This
change is particularly practical when men see their peers marry uncircumcised
women and find that the cultural myths surrounding FGM do not hold true (Khosla et al., 2018; WHO, 2018).
Direct support
As (ActionAid, 2024) puts it, ActionAid
provides direct support to women and girls who have run away from being
mutilated. They run away since this is step to marriage and its
critical in the community and if you have not gone through the act then the
family rejects you and you became an outcast. Through the ActionAid
initiatives, they have rescue centres that welcome
them.
In order to guarantee that boys and girls
learn about gender equality and advocate for girls' rights, they have also
created girls’ clubs and youth organizations. In this grassroot
clubs and groups, through the training they receive, they are able to change
their perspective about FGM and also pass that knowledge to their parents and
also the next generation. It’s supposed to ensure that FGM reduces each year if
not totally be eradicated.
ActionAid trains women to
create Women’s Watch groups in which they can report cases of FGM easily since
they are women led and initiated. As per (ActionAid, 2024),the
network is composed of women who have come together to fight against violence
perpetuated against women and girls. This groups work closely with the leaders
and police in the communities as to ensure that those who force the girls and
women to go through and even those who are the once undertaking the practice
secretly or openly are arrested and persecuted by the law.
The
watch groups have access to free FGM Hotlines, counselling facilities for those
affected and FGM Specialised clinics. The
availability of this help ensures that those affected are helped effectively.
As anyone can call for help due to the HELPLINE being free and those who have
been affected can go for counselling and also to the hospital. ( WHO, 2018; UNICEF, 2020; ActionAid,
2024)
Support of Anti-FGM Laws
Another mechanism, (ActionAid,
2024)reports
that they encourage nations to support the enactment of anti-FGM laws. In Kenya, FGM
is not specifically mentioned in the Constitution, however, Article 29(c)
guarantees the right to be free from being "subjected to any form of
violence" and the prohibition against "treated or punished in a
cruel, inhuman or degrading manner." "A person shall not compel
another person to perform, observe, or undergo any cultural practice or
rite," according to Article 44(3). Furthermore, every child is shielded
from "abuse, neglect, harmful cultural practices, all forms of violence,
inhuman treatment and punishment" under Article 53(d).
A
piece of legislation known as the FGM Act of 2011 established an anti-FGM board
and outlined the crimes and penalties associated with FGM in Kenya. In this
instance, ActionAid ensures that grassroots
communities are informed about the legislation and made aware of the fact that
FGM is a crime against humanity and a violation of their rights (UNICEF, 2020).
ActionAid’s efforts focus on educating local
populations about the legal implications of FGM, thereby contributing to
raising awareness about the criminal offences outlined in Part IV (Articles
19–25) of the FGM Act 2011. These articles cover various aspects of FGM,
including the following criminal offences:
- Article 19
– The performance of FGM, including by medical practitioners.
- Article 20
– Procuring, aiding, and abetting the practice of FGM.
- Article 21
– Procuring a person to perform FGM in another country.
- Article 22
– Allowing the use of premises for FGM.
- Article 23
– The possession of tools and equipment for FGM.
- Article 24
– Failure to report awareness of FGM to a law enforcement officer, whether
the procedure is in progress, has already occurred, or is planned.
- Article 25
– The use of derogatory or abusive language against a woman for having not
undergone FGM, or against a man for marrying or supporting that woman
(Kenya Law, 2011; WHO, 2018).
These
legal measures are designed to deter the practice of FGM and to protect victims
by holding offenders accountable, including those who may facilitate or support
the practice.
When the entire community understands that
the government opposes the practice and is actively working to combat this
violation, they may continue the practice in secrecy. However, they are aware
that if they are caught, they will face prosecution under the law, which they
are already familiar with."
Campaigns to end FGM
Not only does ActionAid
work in Kenya, but also globally to eradicate the violation of women's rights,
specifically female genital mutilation (FGM). In neighboring Ethiopia, ActionAid reports that they have trained over one thousand
women to start Women's Watch Groups. As a result, a growing number of girls are
choosing to reject FGM, and more than 42,000 people residing in 12 villages
have stopped performing the procedure. Those who continue the practice are
taken to court (ActionAid, 2020). This issue reflects
a generational violation, making it difficult for children to convince their parents
that FGM is not necessary. It is clear that many parents do not initially see
harm in the practice, but they are gradually coming to terms with the fact that
it is a harmful act, not just for the girls but also for their future children.
While this change takes time, with continued education and community efforts,
the message will eventually resonate, and more communities will embrace the
call to say no to FGM (UNICEF, 2021; WHO, 2018).
ActionAid uses
different strategies for its campaigns as explained below;
Kongamanos
One of the methods that ActionAid
uses to combat FGM is through Kongamanos, which,
according to the Lexilogos Swahili
Dictionary, is defined as conferences or meetings (Lexilogos,
n.d. (ActionAid, 2024)shares
a case study of the conferences in Garissa written by
Hussein and Warui who are project coordinators
meaning that they have first-hand information.
The conference is held among the Somali
community in the Bura area, Jambele
village, a remote region still developing in terms of both social amenities and
economic infrastructure. FGM is deeply rooted in the local culture, and for
many in the community, it is challenging to understand why the practice should
be abandoned, especially since their ancestors practised
it and their wives underwent it as well.
Through the Kongamanos,
facilitators have worked to educate the community about the violations against
women, including their rights, forced and early marriages, and the harmful
effects of FGM. This education is crucial in helping the community recognize
the long-term consequences of the practice and promoting a shift in attitudes
towards it.
By making sure that the girls, chiefs,
religious leaders, and other community members are heard during these
discussions, they will be able to analyse and
evaluate the effects of female genital mutilation (FGM) on women and girls as
well as develop locally appropriate solutions to put an end to FGM. The
following initiatives were developed by this community: as (ActionAid, 2024)reports; ‘Weekly
Mosque sermons on Ending FGM, and teaching women and girls about FGM not being
mandatory religious activity”
Evaluations of the Kongamanos
approach show its success, with community members increasingly engaging in open
discussions and critically questioning the traditional norms that support FGM.
Reports and feedback from the community show greater awareness and a
willingness to challenge these harmful practices, signalling
a significant shift in attitudes towards FGM (Hussein & Warui,
2024).
Engagement with children through exhibitions
An ActionAid
project titled Enhancing Community Approaches to Ending FGM in Kapchorwa, Kenya, employs a multifaceted approach to combat
FGM. As part of this initiative, girls in schools are educated about the
harmful effects of FGM and the importance of rejecting this violation of their
rights. Pupils are engaged during school assemblies, where they are informed
about FGM, and the topic is also integrated into their lessons. Also debates on
FGM are being held, providing students with an opportunity to explore the issue
in depth. This educational approach helps the girls understand the dangers of
practice and empowers them to resist societal or familial pressures to undergo
FGM as they grow older. ( (ActionAid, 2024)
The ActionAid Kapchorwa Cluster magazine reports that even a woman who is
married is likely to go back and get circumcised in case they had not while
growing up. One of the survivors says “The reason why I chose to get
circumcised was because of the culture which prohibits uncircumcised girls from
picking cow dung from the kraal and climbing the granary to get food. I
wondered what would happen if there was no one around to get food for me,
certainly, I would starve. So, I went back home leaving my young child behind
and got circumcised”. This is the main reason, why young children and
the whole community have to be trained to say No to FGM. This affects the whole
community; someone cannot escape; and the community is likely to
stigmatize someone until they go get circumcised as another survivor shares, “that
Pressure also comes from neighbours and friends who
burry you at water sources (by not allowing you to fetch water before them and
at every given opportunity”
Support of surgeons
The Kapchorwa
Project adopted an alternate livelihood plan after realizing that the surgeons
who had previously made money by conducting female genital mutilation (FGM) had
no income after being outlawed from the practice. The project gave these people
access to grinding mills, allowing them to make money through a respectable and
long-term source of employment. By addressing the cultural and economic issues
that contribute to the continued prevalence of female genital mutilation in the
area, this intervention sought to discourage surgeons from resuming the
damaging practice of circumcising women and girls. Since it directly addresses
the financial incentives that support the practice, providing alternative
livelihoods has been demonstrated to be an effective technique in reducing FGM
(UNFPA, 2020)
Impact and Conclusion
Through ActionAid's
efforts worldwide, awareness has been raised in affected regions about the
harmful effects of FGM and the reasons why communities should abandon this
violation of the rights of women and girls. Efforts to end FGM have reached
even the most remote areas, including rural parts of Kenya, through
community-led girl clubs and women’s network groups.
The initiative has involved a broad
cross-section of the community, including young girls in schools, village
elders, men, both married and unmarried women, grandparents, and even
traditional surgeons. This inclusive approach ensures that the training and
education on FGM reach everyone, creating a shared understanding and preventing
the perpetuation of the practice in future generations.
As a result of these efforts, there has been
a significant reduction in the stigmatization of uncircumcised individuals. Men
are now increasingly marrying uncircumcised women, and community leaders are
actively addressing the issue by taking FGM cases seriously and prosecuting
perpetrators in the courts of law.
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About
the Authors
1.
John Sele Philip*
John Sele Philip is a scholar with a
rich academic background, currently pursuing a Master’s degree in
Development Studies specializing in the Theology of Development. He
holds a bachelor's degree in Theology and a minor in Development Studies
from Africa International University (AIU), Nairobi. His academic and
professional journey reflects a deep commitment to integrating theology with
development principles as he authored the blog, Theology Of Development (https://theologydev.com). He hails from Jos,
Plateau State, Nigeria.
Sele is a lecturer of
Development Studies at Africa International University (https://aiu.ac.ke). His work in
academia and development is informed by years of leadership experience,
including his tenure as the International Students Representative at AIU and
the Chief Executive Officer of Content Creators Hub (https://mycreatorshub.org).
His scholarly work is underpinned by a commitment
to community engagement, practical theology, governance and politics, resource
mobilization, and social justice, with a focus on empowering marginalized
communities, particularly in Jos, Plateau State, Nigeria. His current research
interests include governance, social inclusion, and the theology of
development, particularly emphasising their practical
implications in the African context.
Read more of his articles from ORCID: https://orcid.org/0009-0001-9637-5071
2.
Faith Nyakerario
Faith Nyakerario is an experienced
administrator and personal assistant, currently serving as a Graduate Assistant
at Africa International University. She is pursuing a master’s degree in
development studies, specializing in Peace and Conflict Transformation, and is
deeply passionate about addressing global challenges through sustainable
development.
In addition to her academic pursuits, Faith
is particularly passionate about climate change and its impact on communities.
She is actively engaged in community engagement efforts, seeking to raise
awareness and promote sustainable practices that contribute to environmental
protection and climate resilience.
With her experience in administration and
academic support, Faith has developed a strong foundation in organizing and
managing educational and developmental projects. Her commitment to peace,
conflict transformation, and climate change underscores her broader goal of
contributing to positive social and environmental change.
Through her work and academic endeavors,
Faith is dedicated to fostering peaceful, sustainable solutions to the pressing
challenges facing communities in Africa and beyond.
3.
Cynthia Wanjiku
Cynthia Wanjiku is a determined
development practitioner from Kenya who is dedicated to using academic
knowledge and workable solutions to address pressing global issues. Her work,
which is informed by her excellent academic background, addresses some of the
most important global challenges of our day, such as social justice,
sustainable development, poverty reduction, and the complex effects of
globalization. Cynthia is passionate about these subjects because she thinks
research may have a beneficial impact on policy and encourage change.
Cynthia who is now studying abroad has gained
more experiences which have helped her to get a broader awareness of the issues
associated with development on both a local and global scale. Her exposure to
various development methods and cultural contexts has enhanced her approach to
problem-solving and strengthened her resolve to close the gap between theory
and practice.
Cynthia's ultimate objective is to make a
significant contribution to the scholarly conversation while providing useful,
applicable insights for real-world situations. She hopes to have a significant
effect on the area of development by promoting policies that advance justice,
sustainability, and fairness on a worldwide basis. She does this by fusing
rigorous research with a practical perspective.
