By Ogbaje, H; Adede, AC; Sule, Y (2023).

Greener Journal of Science, Engineering and Technological Research

ISSN: 2276-7835

Vol. 12(1), pp. 26-33, 2023

DOI: https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.8043708

https://gjournals.org/GJSETR

$Description: C:\Users\user\Documents\GJOURNALS\Journal Logos\GJSETR Logo.jpg$

Click on Play button...

Effects of Irrigation Scheduling on the Growth Parameters of Amaranth in Itakpe, Kogi State, Nigeria.

Hope Ogbaje; ²Alexander Chubiojo Adede; ³Yakubu Sule

¹²³Kogi State Polytechnic, Department of Agricultural and Bio-Environmental Engineering, Lokoja, Kogi State, Nigeria.

ARTICLE INFO	ABSTRACT
*Article No.:* 060223051 *Type: Research* *Full Text:* PDF, HTML, PHP, EPUB, MP3 *DOI:* 10.5281/zenodo.8043708	Amaranth has extra ordinary nutritional benefits and contains full range of essential amino acids in very balanced amounts. Proper irrigation scheduling or efficient water management practices can reduce loss of water and amaranth gets the required amount of water for its growth therefore reducing its current production decline in Nigeria. In this work, pot experiment was carried out at Kogi State Polytechnic, Itakpe campus, Nigeria, to determine the effects of irrigation rates and irrigation frequency on the growth of amaranth. Three levels of irrigation rate (10%, 20% and 30%) and three levels of irrigation frequency (1, 2 and 3 per day) were laid out in a completely randomized design (CRD) giving a total of nine treatments and replicated thrice, totaling 27 samples. Amaranth seeds were planted through broadcasting at the nursery and transplanting was done 7 days after planting. One amaranth was transplanted per pot. The physico-chemical properties of the soils were determined prior to planting. Data collected were subjected to the analysis of variance using Genstat-17-Edition. Significant differences in means were separated using Fischer’s least significant difference F-LSD. Results indicated that irrigation rates and frequency significantly influenced the area of the leaves produced and the height of the plant. Similarly, the length of the plant roots show to be influenced by the irrigation rates and frequency. Irrigation rate of 20% with 1 application per day however gave the best yield and was therefore recommended for the production of amaranth in the study area.
*Accepted:* 03/06/2023 *Published:* 15/06/2023
Corresponding Author Hope Ogbaje* *E-mail:* hopeogbaje@ gmail.com
*Keywords:* irrigation, scheduling, amaranth, growth parameters, itakpe, Nigeria.

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Amaranth (Amaranthus hypochondriacus L) belongs to the family Amaranthaceae. The genus Amaranthus include other species of grain type amaranth viz: A peneculatus, A cruentus and Acaudatus. The grain types of amaranthus are thought to be of Central American origin. In Central America, European settlers introduced these to the old world during the 19^th century. Literature has shown that its protein is of higher quality than cow's milk protein [1]. Amaranth has many nutritional benefits and contains full range of essential amino acids in very balanced amounts [1]. Findings of Wu Leung et al. [2,3] showed 15 to 16% protein and 6.9 to 8.3% lipid in amaranth seeds dry matter and it indicated better calorific value (430 cal / 100 g) than maize.

With all these potentials, amaranth is very sensitive to water stress. It is a plant requiring some water quantity for growth and development. Foregoing research highlighted a reduced amaranth growth due to water deficit [4], while Ejieji and Adeniran [5] reported a reduced amaranth yield for treatment under water stress. In general, Soil water deficit is a principal biotic factor that limits plant growth and development. Jomo et al [4] affirmed a reduced amaranth leaf area and dry matter due to water stress, whereas Meyers [6] concluded a reduced amaranth growth and yield due to water deficit.

Irrigation scheduling is considered as a vital component of water management to produce higher irrigation efficiency under any irrigation system, as excessive or sub-optimum irrigation both have detrimental effects on productivity parameters of amaranth [4].

In almost all regions of the world, water supply is the major constraint to crop production due to water demand for rapid industrialization and high population growth. Agricultural sector consumes about 83% of water whereas; about 50-70% of water is wasted through conveyance, evaporation, field application, and distribution losses in conventional method of irrigation. These losses can be reduced by proper irrigation scheduling or efficient water management practices [7]. In Nigeria, a higher reduction in amaranth production has been recorded while information is limited concerning effective irrigation level for improving its growth and yield [8]. Therefore, there is a need of a study regarding amaranth efficient irrigation scheduling to enhance its growth and production in Itakpe, Kogi State.

The aim of this work was to study the effect of irrigation scheduling on the growth parameters of amaranth in Itakpe, Kogi State.

2.0 MATERIALS AND METHODS

2.1 Study Area

The experiment was conducted in school of Agricultural technology experimental farm in Kogi state Polytechnic campus, Itakpe where the maximum temperature varies between 29^oC and 35^oC, while the annual volume of precipitation is always less that 1900mm with an average of 1000mm. The site is located on latitude 7.658889^oN and longitude 6.362253^oE on an altitude of about 195m above the sea level. Figure 1 show the map of the experimental site (Itakpe, Kogi State, Nigeria).

2.3 Planting

Soil Auger was used to collect soil samples from the field using simple random method at the depth of 0 – 15 cm before planting. Various soil samples were collected at six different spots to arrive at a composite sample. Some portion of the composite sample was introduced into the 27 experimental pots while the remaining soil sample was taken to the laboratory for physico-chemical analysis of the soils.

Planting of Amaranth was done on the 5^th September, 2022. The seeds were planted first at the nursery and transplanting was done after 7 days, 1 plant per pot was planted at a depth of 2.5 cm. The seeds were locally sourced from International Market in Lokoja, Kogi State.

2.4 Data sampling and Analysis

2.4.1 Soil Data

Soil samples were bulked for analysis. The soil samples were air dried, crushed and sieved using 2mm sieve. The soil analysis was carried out at Soil Science Laboratory, Department of Soil science and Environmental Management, Prince Abubakar Audu University, Anyigba, Kogi State.

i. Particle Size Distribution

This was determined using Bouyoucous (Hydrometer) method as described by Udo et al. [9], fifty grams (50g) of the soil sample were stirred for 15 minutes. The dispersed suspension was then transferred into a glass cylinder and the cylinder tilled with distilled water to mark. After that, the top of the cylinder was covered with hand and inverted several times until the dispersion was properly mixed. A plunger was also used to ensure proper stirring of the suspension. Hydrometer and thermometer determine the percentage composition of the suspended materials. The first hydrometer reading was taken at 40 seconds and this measured the amount of silt and clay in suspension. The Second reading was taken after 3 hours and this indicated the percentage of total clay suspension. The percentage composition of sand, silt and clay was determined using the formula below

% sand = 100 (H1 + 0.2 (T1–68) – 2.0) 2 ------(Equations 1)

% clay = H2 – 0.2 (T2 – 68) – 2.0)

% silt = 100 (% sand + % clay)

Where;

H1 = firs hydrometer reading at 40 seconds

T1 = first thermometer reading at 40 seconds

H2 = Second Hydrometer reading after 3 hours

T2 = Second Thermometer Reading after 3 hours

ii. Soil pH

The soil pH was determined in 1:1 soil-water suspension by glass electrode method [10]. Ten Grams (10g) of air dried soil sample (passed through 2mm sieve was measured into a 50ml plastic beaker.

Twenty (20) ml of water was added and the suspension was allowed to stand for about 30 minutes and stirred occasionally with glass rod, after which the suspension was allowed to settle and electrode of the pH meter was inserted to measure the active acidity at a 1:1 ratio. This procedure was repeated using 0.01ml Calcium chloride solution at a ratio of 1:2.

iii. Organic Carbon

This was determined by the modified walking-black method as describe by Nelson and sommers, [11] which involves the oxidation of soil samples with dichromate and tetraoxasulphate (iv) acid. Two gram of sieved soil was mixed with 10ml of distilled water was added. Three drops of Phenolphthalein indicator was added and titrated against ferrous Sulphate. A blank solution was prepared without soil samples and their readings were taken. The Organic carbon was then calculated using the relationship

% OC = NV1 ------------------------------------ (equation 2)

N = Normality of ferrous Sulphate solution

V1 = Mol Ferrous ammonium Sulphate for the blank

V2 = Mol Ferrous ammonium Sulphate for the sample

F = Correction factors = 1.33

% Organic matter in soil = % organic carbon x 1.729

iv. Organic Matter

The organic matter was determined using the chronic acid oxidation produce of Walkley and Black using the formula.

% OM = % OC x1.729 [12]------------------- (equation 3)

v. Total Nitrogen

Total Nitrogen was determined by Macro- Kjeldahl digestion and distillation method as described by Bremmer, [13]. This method makes use of mercury catalyst Tablets to aid the digestion. The soil sample was digested with concentrated tetraoxosulphate (iv) acid after addition of excess caustic soda. Ten grams (10g) of sample was weighed into a dry 500ml conical flask, 20ml of distilled water was added. The flask was then swirled for few minutes and then allows standing for about 30 minutes then was added. Then 30mls of concentrated Sulphuric acid was added through a measuring cylinder. The flask was allowed to cool, and then 100mls of distilled water was added slowly. The digest was transferred to a clean 250mls volumetric flask with caution. The stand particles were then washed with distilled water and flask mark with distilled water. The samples were then distilled with boric acid using 10 ml NaOH.

vi. Available Phosphorus

The molybdenum-blue method as described by IITA [10] was in the determination of phosphorus content in the soil sample. One gram (lg) of air dried sample was taken into a 15ml centrifuge tube and 7ml extraction solution (NH₄F + HCl) was added. The suspension was shaken on a mechanical shaker for 1 minute and centrifuged at 2000 rpm for 15 minutes. Two milliliters of the clear supernatant solution were poured into a 20ml test tube and 5ml of distilled H₂O and 2ml of ammonium molybdate were added to the solution. The content was mixed properly after which 1ml of the dilute stannous chloride solution was added. The percentage transmittance of the sample content solution was measured on the electrophotometer at 600microwavelength. The available phosphorus of the sample was calculated using standard curve of transmittance against known concentration of phosphorus (Rpm)

vii. Exchangeable Bases

This was determined by the ammonium acetate extraction method as described by IITA [10], the soil sample were shaken for two hours then centrifuged at 2000rmp for 5-10 =110 minutes after decanting into a volumetric flack. Ca and Mg were then determine using the atomic absorption spectrometer (AAS) while the EDTA extracts Na and K was determined using flame photometer.

viii. Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC)

The CEC of the sample was determined using the procedures as described by IITA [10] and modified by Anderson and Ingram [14]. The principle involves the solution of the exchange salt of the soil with a known salt solution and displacement of the salt to determine the soil colloids. Potassium chloride (KCl) and neutral NH₄O AC solutions were use in this saturation displacement method.

A 2.5g of sample was taken into a 50ml centrifuge tube, 33ml of 1mlkcl was added and the suspension was shaken for five minutes. The tube was centrifuged to get a clear supernatant discarded. The saturation with KCl and discarding the supernatant solution was obtained.

This was also discarded. The washing with alcohol was repeated two times to remove excess K, 33ml of 1ml NH₄O AC was added to the tube and shaken for 5 Minutes. The suspension was centrifuged to obtain a clear supernatant solution to make up the volume to the 100ml mark and the solution was thoroughly mixed by swirling. The concentration in the flask was determined graphically. The CEC (Cmol/kg) is equal to mg kg/100 soil. This is numerically equal to Cmol/kg soil.

2.4.2 Crop data collection

The following agronomic data were collected at 12 d, 19 d, 26 d, and 33 d (d means the days numbers after transplanting) and recorded as follows;

a. Growth parameters of Amaranth

i. Plant Height

The plant heights were taken using a 30 cm meter rule by placing the meter rule at the base of the amaranth plant measuring up to the last node of the plant.

ii. Number of leaves

The number of leaves was taken by manual counting of the leaves

iii. Leaf Area

A 30 cm meter rule was used to take the leaves area by measuring the length and the breath of the leaf (A=LxB)

iv. Root Length

The root length were taken using a 30 cm meter rule by placing the meter rule at the base of the amaranth plant measuring down to the tip of the root of the plant.

2.4.3 Data Analysis

The data were analyzed statistically with Genstat discovery software edition 4. A comparison among treatments were conducted (P<0.05) by using least significant difference (LSD) at 5% level, Duncan multiple test was used for mean separation.

3.0 RESULTS

3.1 Physical and Chemical Properties of the Experimental Soils

The results obtained for physical and chemical properties of the soil are presented in Table 2. The result shows that the pH of the soil was 6.00 and 5.30 in water and KCL respectively. Sand, silt and clay contents were 71.80, 13.00 and 15.20 respectively, therefore the soil was classified as sandy loam. Organic carbon content was 1.38; the soil had 0.069% nitrogen and 4.87 mgkg^-1 available phosphorus. Exchangeable cations which included K, Na, Mg and Ca were 2.11, 0.39, 2.28 and 4.22 cmolkg^-1 respectively. The TEB, EA and CEC were 9.00, 1.10 and 10.10 cmolkg^-1 respectively.

Table 3: The Influence of Irrigation Rate and Frequency on Leaf Area of Amaranth(cm²)

TREATMENTS	12 days	19 days	26 days
T₁	1.887^b	2.937^ab	3.737^b
T₂	2.660^ab	3.447^ab	3.583^b
T₃	3.297^ab	4.433^ab	4.867^ab
T₄	5.613^a	6.333^a	7.037^a
T₅	2.217^ab	2.867^ab	3.600^b
T₆	1.080^b	2.140^b	3.433^b
T₇	2.293^ab	2.867^ab	3.367^b
T₈	3.680^ab	4.333^ab	4.963^ab
T₉	1.930^b	3.067^ab	3.833^b
LSD (P<0.05)	3.204	3.344	2.895

LSD = Least Significant Difference

Means in the same column with the same superscript are not significantly different at 5% level of probability.

Table 4: Effect of Irrigation Rate and Frequency on the Plant Height of Amaranth (cm)

TREATMENTS	12 days	19 days	26 days
T₁	4.500^a	5.333^ab	6.500^ab
T₂	4.500^a	5.167^ab	5.833^ab
T₃	4.167^a	5.000^ab	5.333^ab
T₄	5.667^a	7.000^a	7.833^a
T₅	3.267^a	3.833^ab	5.167^ab
T₆	2.400^a	3.333^b	4.333^b
T₇	3.200^a	3.667^ab	4.333^b
T₈	4.333^a	5.000^ab	5.833^ab
T₉	4.167^a	5.000^ab	6.000^ab
LSD (P<0.05)	NS	3.209	2.968

NS = Not significant

LSD = Least Significant Difference

Means in the same column with the same superscript are not significantly different at 5% level of probability.

Table 5: Effect of Irrigation Rate and Frequency on the Number of Leaves of Amaranth

TREATMENTS	12 days	19 days	26 days
T₁	4.667^a	7.000^a	7.000^ab
T₂	6.333^a	6.667^a	7.000^ab
T₃	6.000^a	7.333^a	7.667^ab
T₄	7.000^a	8.000^a	8.667^a
T₅	4.000^a	4.333^a	4.667^b
T₆	4.333^a	5.333^a	6.000^ab
T₇	4.000^a	4.333^a	5.000^ab
T₈	5.333^a	6.000^a	6.333^ab
T₉	5.000^a	5.000^a	5.333^ab
LSD	NS	NS	3.387

NS = Not significant

LSD = Least Significant Difference

Means in the same column with the same superscript are not significantly different at 5% level of probability.

4.0 DISCUSSION

The effects of irrigation rate and frequency on the leaf area of amaranth gotten in this study support those of Kwizera Chantal et. al. [1] who reported improved leaf area for irrigated treatments at a medium level comparatively to those under stress. The improved and unique leaf area for treatment T₄, (that is, 20% irrigation rate for ones in a day) could be that field capacity was achieved at that level and the capillary water available for the plant growth was sufficient to meet the need of the plant, thus enhanced performance. Further increment of irrigation rate and frequency would have led to saturation which caused a decline in leaf area from T₅beyond. The lower leaf area observed from T₁ – T₃, as compared to T₄ could be that there was no sufficient water to meet the daily water need of the crops as compared to T₄.

Observation from the effect of irrigation rate and frequency on the height of amaranth shows that improvement of the plant growth with applied higher irrigation rate on 12d, 19d and 26d was due to the higher temperature in these days resulting in increased evapotranspiration whence higher irrigation water for compensation to promote transplanted seedlings root system establishment. This supports the results of Zhongping [15] who found an improved growth due to the use of higher irrigation water during periods of high temperatures. Likewise, these results endorse the outcomes of Leban [16] which revealed an improved plant height for normally irrigated treatments than those under stress. However, the reduced plant height for treatments T₆ and T₇could be attributed to the reduced cell turgor which affect cell division and expansion as affirmed by Jomo et al. [4] and also limited nutrient uptake [17].

Results of the number of leaves of amaranth are in accordance with the results of Pincard [18] and those of Kramer and Boyer [19] who both affirmed an increased leaves number for normally irrigated treatments than those under stress. In addition, these results endorse those of Bouchabke et al. [20] who reported an increased leaves number for irrigated treatments than those under stress.

The effects of irrigation rate and frequency on the root length of amaranth with T4 (that is, 20% irrigation rate for ones in a day) as the most effective treatment in enhancing root length of amaranth plant was due to medium irrigation level as this has also been reported by Gajri et al. [21].

5.0 CONCLUSION

The study showed that among the growth parameters, irrigation scheduling significantly influenced leaf area and plant height. Number of leaves was not significantly different at 12 and 19 days. The result highlighted treatment T₄ (20% irrigation rate and 1 irrigation frequency) as the most effective treatment in enhancing the root length of amaranth plant comparatively to other treatments. Scheduling of 20% irrigation rate, once in a day which gave the highest growth of amaranth is therefore recommended for the production of the amaranth in Itakpe, Kogi State.

CONFLICT OF INTEREST

The author(s) declare no conflict of interest.

REFERENCES

1. Kwizera C., Basil T.I, Niyonzima H, Ntunzwenimana M. and Bucumi E (2018). Effects of Different Irrigation Rates on Growth and Yield Parameters of Amaranth. International Journal of Advances in Scientific Research and Engineering. 4(9):93 – 99.

2. W. Wu Leung, , F. Busson et C. Jardin, (1968a)“Food composition table for use in Africa". FAO, Rome.

3. W. Wu Leung, F. Busson et C. Jardin. (1968b) “Food composition table for use in Latin America". FAO, Rome.

4. Jomo, O. M. Netondo, G.W. Musyimi, D. M. (2015).“Growth Changes of Seven Amaranthus (spp) During the Vegetative and Reproductive Stages of Development as Influenced by Variations in Soil Water Deficit". International Journal of Research and Innovations in Earth Science, 2015, Volume 2, Issue 6, ISSN (Online) : 2394-1375.

5. Ejieji, C.J. and Adeniran, K.A. (2010). “Effects of water and fertilizer stress on the yield, fresh and dry matter production of grain Amaranth (Amaranthus cruentus)". Australian Journal of Agriculture Engineering 1(1):18-24. ISSN:1836-9448.

6. Meyers, R.L. (1996).“ Amaranth New crop opportunity" . In: J. Janick (ed.), Progress in new crops. ASHS Press, Alexandria, VA. Pp. 207-220.

7. Schahbazian N. Kamkar B, Iran-Nejad H. (2006). Evaluation of amaranth production possibility in arid and semi arid regions of Iran. Asian Journal of Plant Sciences 5:580 – 585.

8. Oniango, R.K.(2001). “ Enhancing people’s nutritional status through revitalization of agriculture and related activities in Africa”. Food and Nutritional Screening, 2001, 1: 43-49.

9. Udo, E. J., Ibia, T. O., Ogunwale, J. A. Ano, A. O., and Esu, I. E. (2009). Manual of Soil, Plant and WaterAnalysis, 1^st Edition, Sidon Book Ltd, Lagos. Pp. 17 – 76.

10. IITA (1979). Selected methods for soil and plant analysis. IITA (International Institute of Tropical Agriculture).Manual Series No. 1, Ibadan.

11. Nelson, D.. W. and Sommer, L. E. (1982). Total carbon, organic carbon and organic matter. Methods of soil analysis, Part 2. Chemical and microbiological properties, 2^nd Edition. ASA – SSSA, Madison, 595 – 579.

12. Black, C.A. (1965) Methods of Soil Analysis: Part, Physical and Mineralogical American Society of Agronomy, pp.1912–1921, Was Consin, Madison.

13. Bremner, J. M. (1965). Inorganic forms of Nitrogen. In: black, C. A. Eds., Methods of Soil Analysis,: part 2 Agronomy Monograph No. 9, AsA and SSSA, Madison, 1179 – 1237.

14. Anderson, J.M. and Ingram, J.S.I. (1989) Tropical Soil Biology and Fertility: A Handbook of Methods, CAB International, Wallingford.

15. Zhongping Li, (2013).“ Modeling of plant growth in interaction with the water resource and optimal control of irrigation". Other. Paris Central School, 2013. Francais. Modélisation de la croissance des plantes en interaction avec la ressource en eau et contrôle optimal de l’irrigation. Autre. Ecole Centrale de Paris, 2013. Français

16. Leban, E. (2006).“ Effect of vine water deficit on couver function, yield and quality formation ". INERA sup Agro, UMR, ecophysiology labolatory of plants under environmental stress, 2006, 4p Effet du stress hydrique de la vigne sur le fonctionnement du couvert, l’élaboration du rendement et la qualité". INERA sup Agro, UMR, laboratoire d’écophysiologie des plantes sous stress environnementaux, 2006, 4P 15.

17. Wu, F., Yang, W., Zhang, J. and Zhou, L., (2011). “ Growth responses and metal accumulation in an ornamental plant (Osmanthus fragrans var. thunbergii) submitted to different Cd levels". International Scholarly Research Network ISRN, 2011, Ecology:1-7.

18. Pincard , (2000).“ Water stress and yield relation; what spacialisation perspective? Usage of crop simulator ( STICS) ". Memory of Ingineer. National College of Dijon higher Agronomic education ( France), 2000, 61P. La relation stress-hydrique-rendement; quelle perspective de la spatialisation ? utilisation d’un simulateur de cultures (STICS). Mémoire d’Ingénieur. Etablissement National d’Enseignement supérieur Agronomique de Dijon (France). 2006, 61P.

19. Kramer J.P. Boyer, J.S (1995) “ Water relation of plants and soil". Academic press. Inc .A Divion of Harcourt Brace and company 525B street, suite 1900, son Diego, California 92101-4495. 482P.

20. Bouchabke, O. Tardieu F. Simonneau, T. (2006). “ Leaf growth and turgor in growing cells of maizeZea mays L. respond to evaporative demand under moderate irrigation but not in water saturated soil". Plant cell and Environment, 2006, 29(6) 1138 1148p.

21. Gajri., P.R. Prihar, S. S. Cheema, H. S. and Kapoor, A. (1991).“ Irrigation and tillage effects on root development, water use and yield of wheat on coarse textured soils ". Irrig Sci, 1991, 12: 161.

Parameters	Values
Sand (%)	71.80
Silt (%)	13.00
Clay (%)	15.20
Textural class	Sandy Loam
Organic Carbon (%)	1.38
Organic Matter (%)	2.38
Total Nitrogen (%)	0.069
Available phosphorus (mgkg^-1)	4.87
pH in water	6.00
pH in KCL	5.30
Exchangeable cation
K (cmol/kg)	2.11
Na (cmol/kg)	0.39
Mg (cmol/kg)	2.28
Ca (cmol/kg)	4.22
Total Exchangeable Bases (cmol/kg)	9.00
Exchangeable anion (cmol/kg)	1.10
Cation Exchange Capacity (cmol/kg)	10.10

Treatments	Irrigation Rates (%)	Irrigation Frequencies (per day)
T1	10	1
T2	10	2
T3	10	3
T4	20	1
T5	20	2
T6	20	3
T7	30	1
T8	30	2
T9	30	3